Calm and Insight

The Buddhist Teachings on Liberation of Mind and Liberation by Wisdom

Introduction

In Pali, the word samatha means ’calm’ or ’tranquil’, but the term generally refers to the actual methods of generating tranquillity and of developing a deeply concentrated mind. The purpose of samatha is to attain the meditative absorptions (jhāna).¹ In samatha practice one fixes one’s mind on an object (ārammaṇa) until the mind is one-pointed, which is called samādhi (concentration). When concentration is properly established the mind enters one of the jhānas. In the four fine-material jhānas (rūpa-jhāna or simply jhāna) one uses aspects of materiality as the object of attention. More refined than these are the four formless jhānas (arūpa-jhāna), in which one uses immaterial objects as the object of attention. Together these jhānas are called the eight ’attainments’ (samāpatti).

In jhāna the mind is happy, peaceful and bright; there is no dullness or disturbance; the mind is free from the hindrances (nīvaraṇa).² For the duration of jhāna, one is said to be free from the mental defilements (kilesa). The defilements return, however, when one exits jhāna. The terms ’cessation as suppression’ (vikkhambhana-nirodha) and ’liberation as suppression’ (vikkhambhana-vimutti) are used for this suppression of defilement by concentration. Possible fruits of jhāna are the five special powers (abhiññā): psychic power, telepathy, recollection of past lives, divine ear, and divine eye. (See Note Higher Knowledge)

The word samatha often refers specifically to concentration (samādhi). Equating samatha with samādhi is in accord with both the Abhidhamma and the suttas, for no matter which special powers or attainments a person reaches, the essence of tranquillity meditation is concentration.³ {427}

Vipassanā means ’clear insight’. The term also refers to methods of cultivating wisdom in order to see the truth, to see things clearly as they are, not as one imagines them to be with a vision distorted by desire and aversion. This insight deepens until ignorance and attachment are uprooted, at which point one’s impressions, perceptions and attitudes are transformed.

The knowledge that gradually increases during this practice of insight is called ñāṇa, of which there are many levels. The final and highest knowledge is called vijjā, which completely eradicates ignorance. A mind endowed with such knowledge is joyous, peaceful and free. It escapes the clutches of defilements, which corrupt people’s thoughts and actions. An awakened person is not afflicted by defilements and need not struggle against them. This knowledge is the aim of insight meditation (vipassanā) and it leads to true and lasting liberation. This absolute liberation is called ’cessation as severance’ (samuccheda-nirodha) or ’liberation as severance’ (samuccheda-vimutti).⁴

The goal of tranquillity meditation is jhāna; the goal of insight meditation is ñāṇa.⁵ People can practise solely samatha meditation, wishing to enjoy the fruits of such practice: the jhānas and the supreme powers (abhiññā). They may stop here, not concerning themselves with insight meditation and the development of wisdom. But a person practising insight meditation must rely on some level of concentration. They may attain jhāna first and use jhāna as a basis for insight, they may practise insight first and then practise tranquillity, or they may practise both forms of meditation simultaneously. Those who are called ’practitioners of pure insight’ (suddhavipassanā-yānika) do not practise tranquillity in a ’direct’ or ’exclusive’ way – they do not attain jhāna before developing insight – but they still depend on tranquillity in a broad sense: they still depend on concentration. The initial concentration of someone practising insight may be ’temporary’ (khaṇika-samādhi). But at the point of attaining path and fruit (magga-phala), concentration is firmly established (’attainment concentration’ – appanā-samādhi), reaching at least the first jhāna.

However extraordinary the jhānas or psychic powers may be, if they result exclusively from tranquillity meditation they are still ’mundane’: they lie within the domain of unawakened beings.⁶ Examples of such accomplishments are the psychic powers of Ven. Devadatta,⁷ the temporary emancipation of Ven. Godhika,⁸ and the stories in the texts of monks, rishis and laypeople who attained jhāna.⁹ {428}

Concentrative attainments and supernormal powers resulting from tranquillity meditation were accessible before the Buddha’s time.¹⁰ Those individuals who achieved these attainments came from other religious traditions and preceded the Buddha, for example Āḷāra Kālāma who reached the third formless jhāna and Uddaka Rāmaputta who attained the fourth formless jhāna.¹¹ These attainments are not the goal of Buddhism since they do not bring about true deliverance from suffering and defilement. There were monks of other traditions who having attained the four jhānas maintained wrong view and claimed that abiding in these jhānas is equivalent to Nibbāna, a claim the Buddha repudiated.¹²

The true purpose of tranquillity meditation in Buddhism is to generate concentration to use as a basis for insight. (See Note Tranquillity for Insight) A cultivation of this insight supported by concentration leads to the final goal of Buddhism. Someone with the special quality of reaching this highest goal and being endowed with the exceptional fruits of tranquillity meditation will be admired and revered. But someone who has attained only the fruits of insight is still superior to someone who has attained jhānas and psychic powers yet remains unawakened. The concentration of non-returners who have not achieved the eight jhānas or the five supreme powers (abhiññā) is still considered ’complete’. It is secure and steadfast since no defilements exist to erode or disturb it. This is not true of those who attain jhāna or psychic powers but do not cultivate insight or attain path and fruit (magga-phala). Although their level of concentration may be exceptional, there is no guarantee of its stability. They are still susceptible to being overwhelmed by defilement. Even the concentration of stream-enterers and once-returners can be disturbed and weakened by sensual lust. Their samādhi is therefore still considered ’incomplete’.¹³

This subject of calm and insight is connected to the deliverance by wisdom and deliverance of mind discussed below. {429}

Liberation of Mind and Liberation by Wisdom

(Note the difference between cetovimutti and paññāvimutti, which are states of mind, and ubhatobhāga-vimutta and paññā-vimutta, who are individuals.)

Earlier, liberation (vimutti) was mentioned as a synonym for Nibbāna and also discussed in the section on the attributes of awakened beings. Here, we will examine the term vimutti more closely. In the commentaries, the term vimutti in its highest sense has three distinct definitions:

1. Vimutti as the Path (magga): the act of liberation; the existing conditions at the moment of liberation.

2. Vimutti as fruition (phala): the freedom resulting from liberation; the result of being a liberated person.

3. Vimutti as equivalent to Nibbāna: the state of a liberated person; the nature of freedom reached and experienced by a liberated person, providing such blessings as happiness, ease, contentment and peace; the liberation unawakened people determine as an object of contemplation and set as a goal.¹⁴

Of these three definitions, the second one of vimutti as fruition is the most specific and pertains to the essential meaning of liberation. It refers here most often to the fruition of arahantship, when one abandons all ten fetters (saṁyojana) and is released from all mental taints (āsava). In the definition of vimutti as the Path, there are additional agents, especially true knowledge (vijjā) and dispassion (virāga), which are often paired with liberation. In such cases vijjā or virāga are defined as the Path, while vimutti constitutes the fruit. In the third definition vimutti is a synonym for Nibbāna. (See Note Vimutti)

Vimutti as fruition, especially as the fruit of arahantship, is divided into two kinds: cetovimutti and paññāvimutti. Cetovimutti is translated as ’liberation of the mind’. It is the liberation made possible through the strength of concentration. It is the state of a concentrated mind, which quells passion and is free from the bonds of defilement.¹⁵ {430} Paññāvimutti is translated as ’liberation through wisdom’, but can equally be translated as ’liberation of wisdom’ since it refers to the wisdom of an arahant that is purified and perfected. This wisdom dispels ignorance and frees a person from defilement.

The commentaries define cetovimutti as the concentration (samādhi) which is the fruit of arahantship, and they define paññāvimutti as the wisdom and knowledge which is the fruit of arahantship.¹⁶ All persons who have attained arahantship have completed these two kinds of liberation. In passages referring to the attainment of arahantship these two terms therefore always exist as a pair, for example:

Cetovimutti is the fruit of tranquillity; paññāvimutti is the fruit of insight.¹⁷ The commentaries assert that the appearance of these two terms as a pair indicates that tranquillity and insight must be combined, both at the level of ’fruit’ (phala) and ’path’ (magga).¹⁸ Tranquillity (samatha) here can be taken in a broad sense as a required level of concentration; it need not refer to the deeper levels of concentration resulting in the higher psychic attainments.

Liberation is complete with the attainment of both cetovimutti and paññāvimutti. It is possible to only practise tranquillity and this practice can lead to the higher concentrative attainments in which the defilements are suppressed. This is one kind of liberation albeit a temporary one. In order to reach true liberation, however, a person practising tranquillity must also integrate insight meditation. The term cetovimutti can be used in contexts apart from the realization of path and fruit, although in these contexts the liberation of the mind is not absolute. The decisive factor is therefore paññāvimutti, which gradually eliminates ignorance and eradicates the defilements. True lasting liberation comes with paññāvimutti. The term anāsava (’taintless’) is used in conjunction with these two terms to emphasize perfect liberation. The term cetovimutti is used as a pair with paññāvimutti simply to show that a high level of concentration is required to prepare the mind for liberation by wisdom.

Paññāvimutti is only used in the context of complete liberation and is always accompanied by the term cetovimutti. Cetovimutti can be used in other contexts. If it refers to the decisive liberation of path and fruit, from stream-entry upwards, then it is paired with paññāvimutti. Otherwise it must be accompanied by a qualifying adjective clearly indicating a stage of definite awakening, for example: akuppā (’unshakeable’) or asamaya (’lasting’). When found alone or accompanied by other terms then it does not refer to complete liberation.

Because of the similarity of the terms, the division of arahants into ’one liberated by wisdom’ (paññāvimutta) and ’one liberated both ways’ (ubhatobhāgavimutta) gives the impression that the former refers to someone who has solely attained liberation by wisdom (paññāvimutti). In fact, the attainment of paññāvimutti necessarily includes the attainment of cetovimutti in the sense that a person relies on a refined degree of concentration to attain liberation by wisdom. In this case, concentration does not need to be highlighted. Even someone who solely practises insight (sukkha-vipassaka) depends on tranquillity meditation to develop a required degree of concentration. In the case of ’one liberated in both ways’ (ubhatobhāgavimutta), liberation of the mind (cetovimutti) is emphasized. The reason for this emphasis is because the kind of cetovimutti referred to here is exceptional, of the eight vimokkha or the higher attainments of jhāna.

As mentioned above, the term vimutti is used in many different contexts. The term cetovimutti, when referring to levels of liberation that are not yet transcendent, is most often used on its own; in this case it suggests a liberation that is not absolute. Inferior kinds of liberation generally occur through the power of concentration. {432} Later texts also use the term vimokkha when referring to non-transcendent liberation.²⁰ The original texts reserved a unique definition for vimokkha as explained in the chapter on awakened beings. Whichever term is used – vimutti, cetovimutti or vimokkha – it is usually accompanied by a qualifying adjective to clarify the context, for example: sāmāyika-vimutti, sāmāyika-cetovimutti, sāmāyika-vimokkha (all meaning ’temporary liberation’), appamaññā-cetovimutti (’boundless liberation’), or santa-cetovimutti (’peaceful liberation’). Replacing the qualifying adjectives of inferior levels of liberation with adjectives of an opposite meaning denotes a supreme form of liberation (for example, by replacing sāmāyika with asamaya).

Vimutti in a general sense can thus be divided into two kinds: as absolute and not-absolute. When referring to its highest meaning, the word vimutti is preceded by one of the following qualifying adjectives to make it clear that the reference is to absolute, transcendent liberation: akuppā (akuppā-vimutti and akuppā-cetovimutti: ’unshakeable liberation’; ’non-degenerative liberation’);²¹ or asamaya (asamaya-vimutti²² and asāmāyika-cetovimutti:²³ ’lasting liberation’; ’timeless liberation’). All these terms refer to ’noble fruition’ (ariya-phala), especially to the fruit of arahantship.²⁴ And since the term cetovimutti on its own never refers to absolute liberation, the terms akuppā and asāmāyika are added to indicate a liberation of mind that is absolute, not subject to decay, and necessarily accompanied by liberation by wisdom. {433}

Another transcendent form of cetovimutti accessible to awakened beings is the ’signless liberation of mind’ (animittā-cetovimutti), which is known as a ’fruition attainment’ (phala-samāpatti). This is reached when stream-enterers, once-returners, non-returners and arahants wish to abide at ease and enter a state of concentration, experiencing the rasa (’flavour’; ’quality’) of their realization. This state of liberation is an ’abiding at ease in the present’ (diṭṭhadhamma-sukhavihāra) and a ’noble, transcendent bliss’ (ariyalokuttara-sukha). It is called ’signless liberation of mind’ because it is a freedom of mind wherein the person takes no notice of signs and features belonging to conditioned phenomena (i.e. to form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness), and only focuses on Nibbāna (has Nibbāna as the object of awareness).²⁵

The many lesser, mundane levels of liberation are included in the term cetovimutti when this term occurs on its own. Alternatively, the term sāmāyika-cetovimutti (equivalent to sāmāyika-vimutti and samaya-vimutti, all meaning ’temporary liberation’) is used.²⁶ The word adhimutti (’intent upon’; ’absorbed in’) is often used to describe these lesser levels of liberation, or else adhimutti is used as a synonym for the above terms (see Note Reflecting on Nibbāna).²⁷ Adhimutti refers to being absorbed in an object to the extent that one is freed from disturbances and defilements for as long as one abides in that state, for example one is freed from the hindrances (nīvaraṇa) when absorbed in jhāna.

The standard definition for ’temporary liberation’ (sāmāyika-cetovimutti) equates this liberation with the eight mundane attainments (samāpatti): the four fine-material and the four immaterial jhānas.²⁸ The concentrative attainments of unawakened persons are confined to these eight. In order to specify that the deliverance of mind here refers to the eight attainments, the word santa (’peaceful’; ’refined’) is occasionally added, as santa-cetovimutti.²⁹

’Temporary liberation’ (cetovimutti, sāmāyika-cetovimutti, vimutti, or sāmāyika-vimutti) can also have a very broad definition, referring to absorption into any object of faith, inspiration, or delight. This kind of liberation accompanies a mind that is intensely focused on an object. This focus generates strength, courage and perseverance. It is the incipient stage in a natural process (idappaccayatā or paṭiccasamuppāda) that leads on to joy, tranquillity and concentration. {434} It is called liberation because it is an escape from conflicting and bothersome mental qualities (paccanīka-dhamma – ’mental adversaries’), such as doubt, discouragement, mental sluggishness, and fear. These mental qualities are suppressed as long as the conditions supporting liberation are maintained, as long as the mental strength generated by inspiration remains. The texts even classify the aspiration to live in the forest,³⁰ or the joy that arises when listening to a Dhamma talk,³¹ as this kind of liberation of mind. Aspects of this kind of liberation, however, can also give rise to unwholesome mental states.³²

There are names for specific kinds of temporary liberation (sāmāyika-cetovimutti), depending on the object on which the mind is focused. The temporary liberation of mind that is most often mentioned and encouraged is called ’boundless liberation’ (appamāṇā-cetovimutti or appamaññā-cetovimutti).³³ Here, one develops concentration by radiating the qualities of lovingkindness (mettā), compassion (karuṇā), appreciative joy (muditā), and equanimity (upekkhā) in all directions with a mind that is unbounded and immeasurable, until the mind is absorbed in these wholesome states and enters jhāna. The mind is then freed from the five hindrances and from the unwholesome qualities that are antagonistic to the four qualities listed above: the liberation of lovingkindness (mettā-cetovimutti) is free from ill-will, the liberation of compassion (karuṇā-cetovimutti) is free from hostility, the liberation of appreciative joy (muditā-cetovimutti) is free from jealousy, and the liberation of equanimity (upekkhā-cetovimutti) is free from lust.

Other kinds of temporary liberation of mind, which occur in the scriptures only rarely, include: suññatā-cetovimutti (liberation of mind stemming from the insight that all conditioned phenomena are empty of self and empty of anything related to self – attaniya);³⁴ ākiñcaññā-cetovimutti (the immaterial jhāna directed upon the sphere of nothingness);³⁵ and mahaggatā-cetovimutti (while in jhāna, radiating the mind engaged with a kasiṇa meditation object over however large an area or domain as one chooses).³⁶

Drawing upon the above material, it is fair to say that any devotion to an ideal or object of faith, for example to a supreme deity, is a kind of absorption and can be included in the broad definition of cetovimutti.

Some people claim that abiding in jhāna is Nibbāna, or claim that ’extinction of perception and feeling’ (saññāvedayita-nirodha or nirodha-samāpatti), the highest concentrative attainment, is Nibbāna. {435} In fact, these concentrative attainments are used as instruments to attain arahantship. They prepare the mind and make it suitable for awakening. These attainments, along with their material and immaterial properties, are conditioned phenomena, which are reflected upon by Dhamma practitioners with insight and wisdom to give rise to true knowledge (vijjā).³⁷

Arahants use these concentrative attainments for rest and to experience happiness, and these attainments are thus called ’abiding at ease in the present’ (diṭṭhadhamma-sukhavihāra),³⁸ ’divine abidings’ (dibba-vihāra),³⁹ and ’gradually ascending abidings’ (anupubba-vihāra).⁴⁰ These states, however, are not Nibbāna. They are means by which Nibbāna can be realized and they are easeful abidings for those who have already realized Nibbāna. Indeed, the realization of Nibbāna facilitates the attainment of these concentrative states and allows a person to benefit greatly from them. For example, a person who has attained the eight jhānas will have the necessary concentration and wisdom to reach the attainment of cessation (nirodha-samāpatti) when they realize the state of non-returner or arahantship.⁴¹

A person who has not yet realized arahantship still has a degree of attachment to fine-material and immaterial existence, and they may still be fascinated or attached to concentrative attainments. {436} Although jhānas are excellent, Buddhism considers attachment to jhāna a weakness. Indeed, such attachment can be an obstacle for realizing Nibbāna. The Buddha said that if a monk attains the highest immaterial jhāna (nevasaññānāsaññāyatana) but indulges in the feeling of this state he will not be able to realize Nibbāna, because there is still clinging (upādāna). Clinging to such a refined state the Buddha called ’superior clinging’ (upādāna-seṭṭha, see Note A State Considered Excellent). Arahants make use of jhāna to dwell at ease, but without any attachment.

Proof that jhānas, all the way up to attainment of cessation, are not Nibbāna is the fact that arahants who are ’those liberated by wisdom’ (paññāvimutta) have not attained the immaterial jhānas and are unable to enter the attainment of cessation. From the Pali Canon we can deduce that at the time of the Buddha there were more paññāvimutta than ubhatobhāga-vimutta. For example, at a large gathering of monks the Buddha told Ven. Sāriputta:

Liberation by wisdom (paññāvimutti) is decisive and is equivalent to attaining Nibbāna. This kind of liberation transforms liberation of mind (cetovimutti), which may have been achieved long before and repeatedly accessed in the past – or else it arises simultaneously with paññāvimutti⁴³ – into unshakeable liberation of mind (akuppā-cetovimutti), since the taints have now been eliminated.

Awakened persons derive the maximum benefit from cetovimutti, without harming themselves or others. They do not indulge in these attainments nor do they use the fruits of concentration – the mundane psychic powers – in a misguided way for self-gratification. Here, liberation of mind and liberation by wisdom exist as a pair, as is frequently mentioned in the texts: The deliverance of mind and deliverance by wisdom wherein those evil unwholesome states cease without remainder.⁴⁴ {437} The Buddha said that this unshakeable liberation of mind (cetovimutti combined with paññāvimutti) is the essence and goal of Buddhism:

There are three factors leading to the decline of temporary liberation of mind (samaya-cetovimutti). First are the defilements (kilesa) which have not yet been completely eliminated. They may have been suppressed or subdued, but they lie in wait and are aroused when the positive conditions like faith weaken. Second are the supportive conditions like faith, enthusiasm, contentment and determination. When these conditions fade or weaken, liberation of mind also declines. These supportive conditions may even fade for good reason. A person may at one time have strong faith in something and be greatly devoted, but later realize that the faith is not grounded in wisdom and the object of faith is unworthy of such devotion. Third are environmental factors, which include a person’s health and external conditions like poverty or famine. In spiritual practice these three factors are linked. For example, due to some difficulty a person will lose heart; confusion, irritation and discouragement will arise and liberation of mind will vanish.

There are some interesting stories in the Pali Canon of how liberation of mind can be affected. Ven. Godhika was diligent and resolute and he reached temporary liberation of mind (sāmāyika-cetovimutti; the mundane concentrative attainments). But due to the torment of chronic illness he fell away from this liberation of mind. A second and a third time he reached temporary liberation of mind and fell away from it. This happened six times. {438} When he reached temporary liberation of mind a seventh time, he thought that he would surely fall away from it as before. He considered that it would be better to die while in this state of liberation than die after falling away from it. He thus used a knife to kill himself, but as he was lying on his bed in pain he established mindfulness and reflected on the feelings (vedanā) arising. While meditating in this way he achieved arahantship before attaining final Nibbāna.⁴⁶

Another passage describes the ascetics and brahmins who went into the forest, living on fruits and berries, thinking that if they were to get caught up in sensuality they would become intoxicated and fall under the spell of Māra. When food was scarce and they became thin and weak, their determination and enthusiasm slackened, and they returned to the wider world to enjoy sense pleasures.⁴⁷

The commentaries sorted the many definitions of vimutti into five groups, following the same model that they used for sorting the definitions of ’cessation’ (nirodha).⁴⁸ These five groups act as a useful summary, as they contain the essence of all the definitions presented so far:⁴⁹

These final three kinds of liberation are defined as ’permanent liberation’ (asāmāyika-cetovimutti) and are transcendent. Essentially, these five kinds of liberation are equivalent to samatha, vipassanā, magga, phala, and Nibbāna, respectively.

Important Principles on the Realization of Nibbāna

{442} The following questions are often debated among Buddhist scholars and practitioners:

• Can someone who only practises insight meditation (vipassanā) attain arahantship, without practising tranquillity meditation (samatha)?

• Is it necessary to attain jhāna before attaining Nibbāna?

• To achieve the six kinds of ’higher psychic attainments’ (abhiññā), is it sufficient to have attained the fourth jhāna or must one have also attained the formless jhānas (i.e. the eight samāpatti)?

• To attain the knowledge of the destruction of the taints (āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa) and realize Nibbāna, must one have previously attained the reminiscence of past lives (pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa) and the knowledge of the decease and rebirth of beings (cutūpapāta-ñāṇa)?

• While in jhāna can one practise insight and contemplate conditioned phenomena or must one first emerge from jhāna?

• Is it possible to develop samatha further and achieve concentrative attainments (jhāna-samāpatti) after attaining path and fruit (magga-phala)?

Some of these questions involve key aspects of realizing Nibbāna, some are only tangentially related, and some have already been discussed at length, especially the question on whether a person can attain Nibbāna by solely practising insight meditation. This section will focus on those questions which are directly related to realization, drawing upon evidence from the scriptures.

General Aspects of Realization

This sutta and three other suttas⁵¹ describe the way to use each stage of concentrative attainment for reflection and to gain insight into the true nature of conditioned phenomena. The above sutta continues: {443}

From here the sutta describes a similar process of cultivating insight to reach the destruction of the taints for each of the concentrative levels all the way up to the sphere of nothingness.⁵⁵

The Mahāmāluṅkya Sutta has less detail but describes the contemplation of the three characteristics in reference to the five aggregates, in each of the jhānas up to the sphere of nothingness, resulting in the destruction of the taints. The Aṭṭhakanāgara and Dasama suttas have a slight variation:

In these suttas the liberations of mind through lovingkindness, compassion, appreciative joy and equanimity are inserted between the fine-material jhānas and the formless jhānas, adding four more concentrative attainments for contemplation.

These four suttas contain essentially the same information; they differ only in minor details. They describe the development of insight in jhāna, from the first jhāna to the sphere of nothingness, ending in the destruction of the taints. The Jhāna Sutta, however, adds a summary:

This means that in jhāna, from the sphere of nothingness and below, there is perception (along with other accompanying aggregates), which can be applied for contemplation and supports insight for the realization of the destruction of the taints. In the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception (nevasaññānāsaññāyatana), perception is too refined and cannot be applied for contemplation. This holds even more true in the extinction of perception and feeling (saññāvedayita-nirodha). Therefore these two attainments are not ’attainments accompanied by perception’ (saññā-samāpatti).

If this is so, how is it possible to attain the destruction of the taints while in the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception and in the extinction of perception and feeling? The answer is that one must first exit these highest levels of concentrative attainment and then apply wisdom to contemplate conditioned phenomena and reach the destruction of the taints. The Anupada Sutta contains a passage concerning the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception:

Compare this with the description of contemplating conditioned phenomena while in the sphere of nothingness (and while in lower jhānas), in which there is no mention of exiting the absorption. For example, in the above sutta it says:

The Cūḷaniddesa, a secondary text, explains the contemplation of the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception in a similar way to the Majjhima-Nikāya above:

An examination of the original text (Sn. 205-6), however, reveals that the phrase ’base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception’ here is an error. It should read ’sphere of nothingness’, as confirmed by the commentaries (NdA. 30; SnA. II. 593).

The secondary and later texts ordinarily describe the contemplation of conditioned phenomena and the development of insight after emerging from concentrative attainments, irrespective of how high or low these attainments are.

Similar explanations are given in reference to the extinction of perception and feeling (saññāvedayita-nirodha): having emerged from this attainment, a person contemplates the fine-material qualities of this state, contemplates the qualities in the preceding state of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, or contemplates all conditioned phenomena, to understand the truth and reach the destruction of the taints.⁵⁶

In a similar fashion, one can contemplate conditioned phenomena or the mental constituents of jhāna after emerging from each of the jhānas, from the sphere of nothingness down to the first jhāna.⁵⁷ The passages above are provided, however, to prove that it is also possible to develop insight while abiding in these states of jhāna, without first emerging from them. Only with the two highest concentrative attainments – of neither-perception-nor-non-perception and the extinction of perception and feeling – must one first exit in order to develop insight.⁵⁸ {445}

The commentaries refer to one who practises in this way as ’one who uses tranquillity as a vehicle’ (samatha-yānika): such a practitioner practises tranquillity until reaching jhāna, at which point he or she develops insight. This is the first way of practice in a group of four, which is mentioned in the scriptures:

1. The practice of insight preceded by tranquillity
   (samathapubbaṅgama-vipassanābhāvanā).

2. The practice of tranquillity preceded by insight
   (vipassanāpubbaṅgama-samathabhāvanā).

3. The practice of tranquillity and insight in association
   (yuganaddhasamatha-vipassanābhāvanā).

4. The way of practice when the mind is distorted or misled by an excitement or agitation in regard to the Dhamma
   (dhammuddhaccaviggahita-mānasa).

   Here one has the misapprehension that the intermediate results of one’s practice constitute path, fruit, and Nibbāna.⁵⁹

These four ways of practice are a summary of the four pathways (magga) described by Ven. Ānanda:

Insight preceded by tranquillity: the Paṭisambhidāmagga defines this thus: initially, the mind is one-pointed, steady and concentrated.⁶⁰ {446} This concentration can arise from any of these causes: the power of renunciation (nekkhamma); the power of a freedom from ill-will (abyāpāda); the perception of light (āloka-saññā), which combats drowsiness; an absence of restlessness (avikkhepa); reflection on aspects of Dhamma (dhamma-vavatthāna), which dispels doubt; knowledge (ñāṇa); joy (pāmojja);⁶¹ the first jhāna; the second jhāna; the third jhāna; the fourth jhāna; the sphere of infinity of space (ākāsānañcāyatana); the sphere of infinity of consciousness (viññāṇañcāyatana); the sphere of nothingness; the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception; the ten kasiṇa meditations; meditation on the ten reflections (anussati); meditation on the ten stages of decay (asubha); and meditation on the thirty-two aspects of mindfulness of breathing.⁶² Concentration is followed by wisdom, which discerns all the attributes of the different stages of concentration as impermanent, subject to stress (dukkha), and nonself.

The commentaries present a simpler explanation for this first way of practice: a person first develops concentration (either access concentration or attainment concentration). He then reflects on that level of concentration, along with accompanying mental factors, as impermanent, etc., until there is noble path-attainment (ariya-magga).⁶³

Tranquillity preceded by insight: the Paṭisambhidāmagga explains:⁶⁴ initially, a person uses insight to see things as impermanent, subject to stress, and nonself. Then, he ’lets go’ of all the qualities manifest during insight meditation, and this ’letting go’ becomes the new object of meditation. The mind then becomes one-pointed and concentrated.

The commentaries elaborate: a person has not yet generated tranquillity, but he or she discerns the universal characteristics (impermanence, etc.) in the five aggregates of clinging (upādāna-khandha). When insight (vipassanā) is complete, ’letting go’ of all factors of insight becomes the object of meditation and the mind becomes one-pointed and concentrated. This leads to path attainment. (See Note Tranquillity or Insight) {447}

The commentaries say that whichever of these two ways of practice a person follows (tranquillity preceded by insight or insight preceded by tranquillity), tranquillity and insight must always arise side by side at the moment of noble path attainment.⁶⁵ This is so because samatha and vipassanā are essentially equivalent to the eight factors of the Noble Path: vipassanā equals right view (sammā-diṭṭhi) and right intention (sammā-saṅkappa), and samatha comprises all the remaining six factors. These eight factors arise naturally together at the moment of attaining the ’noble realm’ (ariya-bhūmi). (See Note Path Knowledge)

Tranquillity and insight in tandem: the Paṭisambhidāmagga explains:⁶⁶ a person develops tranquillity and insight in tandem, in sixteen ways. One of these ways is that the practice of samatha and the practice of vipassanā lead to an identical object of meditation (ārammaṇa). For example, when one abandons restlessness (uddhacca), the mind becomes concentrated and ’cessation’ (nirodha) becomes the object of awareness. (At the same time), by abandoning ignorance, insight arises and ’cessation’ becomes the object of awareness. In this way, tranquillity and insight work together on an equal basis.

Some commentarial passages claim that although there is cooperation between tranquillity and insight, this does not mean that samatha and vipassanā arise simultaneously, since it is not possible to contemplate conditioned phenomena while the mind is one-pointed in jhāna.⁶⁷ These passages state that these two ways of meditation act as a pair in so far that insight follows on from a person’s level of concentrative attainment, and equally the next level of concentrative attainment relies on one’s previous level of insight. A person enters first jhāna, exits first jhāna, contemplates the conditioned nature of first jhāna, enters second jhāna, exits second jhāna, contemplates the conditioned nature of second jhāna, enters third jhāna, etc., until he exits from and contemplates the conditioned nature of the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception.⁶⁸ An important example of this explanation is the account of Ven. Sāriputta, who developed tranquillity and insight in tandem, from the first jhāna to the attainment of path and fruit (of arahantship).⁶⁹

The way of practice when the mind is misled by higher states of mind: the Paṭisambhidāmagga explains:⁷⁰ when a person reflects on the three characteristics in reference to the five aggregates, the following mind states may arise: radiance (obhāsa), knowledge (ñāṇa), bliss (pīti), serenity (passaddhi), joy (sukha), determination (adhimokkha), balanced effort (paggāha), careful attention (upaṭṭhāna), equanimity (upekkhā), and devotion (nikanti). The practitioner here believes that the radiance, for example, is a higher state of mind: he believes he has attained path, fruit or Nibbāna. {448} Thinking in this way causes restlessness and these ten states of mind are not seen as they really are, as impermanent, subject to stress, and not-self. Wise discernment of these ten mind states causing the mind to waver leads to a settled, clear and concentrated mind. With this wisdom, one is not carried away by these mind states. The heart will be pure and still and one’s meditation will neither be misguided nor impaired. The path can subsequently arise.

The commentaries refer to these higher states of mind as the ten ’impurities of insight’ (vipassanūpakilesa, see Note The Ten Impurities of Insight), which arise in people whose insight practice is still weak (taruṇa-vipassanā). Because these qualities are exceptional and have not been experienced before, practitioners are likely to believe they have attained path and fruit. This misunderstanding leads them to deviate from the way of insight; they abandon their meditation practice while delighting in these states of mind. The correct way of practice is to recognize the true nature of these mental states when they arise: that they are impermanent, conditioned, dependently arisen (paṭicca-samuppanna), and subject to decline. They do not belong to us; they are not who we are (’I am not this; this is not mine’). By not being overly excited by these mental states, attachment to them wanes. A person is then able to practise correctly until reaching path and fruit.⁷¹

According to the commentaries, there are two principal ways of practice: insight preceded by tranquillity and tranquillity preceded by insight. The remaining two ways of practice are simply extensions of these former two. The third way of practise, of tranquillity and insight in tandem, is a subdivision of the first way of practice. The fourth way of practice is applied in special circumstances, when specific problems arise by practising the first three ways. It is a strategy for solving these problems arising in practice. {449}

These two principal ways of practice are probably the origin of the two meditation techniques enumerated in the commentaries: the ’vehicle of tranquillity’ (samatha-yāna) of the samatha-yānika (’one who uses tranquillity as a vehicle’) and the ’vehicle of insight’ (vipassanā-yāna) of the vipassanā-yānika (’one who uses insight as a vehicle’). The samatha-yānika practises tranquillity first and insight later. Generally speaking, this tranquillity can simply be ’access concentration’ (upacāra-samādhi) or it can refer to ’attainment concentration’ (appanā-samādhi) of the jhānas.⁷² The commentaries prefer the more restricted meaning, for someone who has attained the jhānas.⁷³ They claim that the way of practice described by the Buddha, quoted at the beginning of this section (i.e. that the destruction of the taints occurs in dependence on the first jhāna, etc.), belongs to the samatha-yānika.

A vipassanā-yānika is also called a suddhavipassanā-yānika – ’one who practises pure insight as a vehicle’. This refers to those who develop insight without having previously developed concentration. When they have correctly contemplated the true nature of things, the mind becomes peaceful and concentration arises automatically. At first, the concentration may be ’momentary’ (khaṇika-samādhi), which is the lowest level of concentration required for subsequent insight practice, as confirmed by this passage:

Someone who begins with temporary concentration and then practises insight is also classified as a vipassanā-yānika, because most everyone experiences temporary concentration when the mind is settled in an activity or due to a conducive environment. As concentration becomes naturally stronger through insight practice, it may develop into ’access concentration’ (upacāra-samādhi): concentration on the verge of jhāna. (See Note Insight Without Jhāna) Finally, at the moment of realizing path and fruit, concentration is well-established as ’attainment concentration’ (See Note Kinds of Concentration), and one reaches at least the first jhāna.⁷⁵ This accords with the principle mentioned earlier, that a person realizing the ’noble realm’ must be accomplished in both tranquillity and insight. {450}

When those who use tranquillity as a vehicle attain arahantship, they are divided into two kinds: those liberated by wisdom (paññā-vimutta) and those liberated both ways (ubhatobhāga-vimutta). The former are those who have attained jhāna not higher than the fourth jhāna. The latter are those who have attained a formless jhāna or higher, up to the extinction of perception and feeling. Those who use insight as a vehicle and who attain arahantship are all classified as paññā-vimutta, and the commentaries assign a special name for them: sukkha-vipassaka (’dry insight practitioners’, see Note Dry Insight Practitioners). The commentaries divide the arahants into ten kinds, listed from the highest to the lowest:⁷⁶

A. Those Liberated Both Ways (ubhatobhāga-vimutta): (See Note Liberated Both Ways)

1. Liberated in both ways and accomplished in the extinction of perception and feeling.

2. Liberated in both ways and accomplished in the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception.

3. Liberated in both ways and accomplished in the sphere of nothingness.

4. Liberated in both ways and accomplished in the sphere of infinite consciousness.

5. Liberated in both ways and accomplished in the sphere of infinite space.

B. Those Liberated by Wisdom (paññā-vimutta):

The first nine kinds of arahants use tranquillity as a vehicle; their concentrative accomplishments occur before practising insight. The tenth kind of arahant uses insight as a vehicle. {451}

Basic Principles of Tranquillity Meditation

Passages in the Tipiṭaka describing particular ways of practice use rather fixed terminology, even though these passages appear in different locations. There are two main outlines for the way of practice in which tranquillity precedes insight, and they both involve reaching a superior level of concentration before developing insight. This can be called the supreme way of practice. The following examples of these two main outlines are drawn from passages recording the Buddha’s awakening:

Outline #1

This common description describes the four jhānas followed by the threefold knowledge (vijjā):

When this description is used to describe the practice of realization for disciples of the Buddha, the terminology is usually the same except for the passages in brackets.⁷⁸ {452} Some passages describe directing the mind to the eight kinds of knowledge rather than just the three mentioned above,⁷⁹ while other passages only mention directing the mind to the final knowledge, of destruction of the taints.⁸⁰

Outline #2

A less common description describes the eight concentrative attainments (samāpatti) in addition to the ’attainment of cessation’ (nirodha-samāpatti), followed by the knowledge of the destruction of the taints:

When this second outline of the gradual path to enlightenment is used in a general sense for disciples, it follows the same terminology but without the detailed analysis:

The reason for selecting two passages describing the Buddha’s enlightenment as examples for the two outlines of practice is to show how these two ways of practice are essentially the same, despite appearing different. They both describe the enlightenment of a single Buddha, and this enlightenment occurred only once.

Scholars may be confused by or misunderstand these two outlines of practice, by interpreting each description too literally and overlooking evidence from other sources that reveal their compatibility. There are five main misunderstandings about these two outlines of practice:

1. The belief that it is necessary to attain the first two kinds of knowledge (recollection of past lives and the knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings) before one is able to reach awakening.

2. The belief that the fourth fine-material jhāna is an adequate basis for reaching the threefold knowledge (vijjā) and the six kinds of ’higher psychic attainments’ (abhiññā).

3. The belief that it is possible to reach enlightenment while abiding in the extinction of perception and feeling. {454}

4. The belief that these two outlines indicate two distinct ways of practice to awakening.

5. The belief that the gradual attainments described in these outlines occur in a single period of time.⁸²

Let us look more closely at these misunderstandings:

A. Evidence that it is not necessary to attain the recollection of past lives or the knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings in order to attain arahantship or realize Nibbāna is clear:

1. In some examples of the first outline there is no mention of the first two kinds of knowledge: a person attains the fourth jhāna and directs the concentrated mind directly to the destruction of the taints.⁸³ These examples show that the two former kinds of knowledge are optional.

2. In the Susīma Sutta, the Buddha describes arahants liberated by wisdom (paññāvimutta), who are not attached to the five aggregates and discern Dependent Origination, and yet are unable to perform psychic powers: they do not have the divine ear, telepathy, recollection of past lives, the divine eye (cutūpapāta-ñāṇa), nor do they dwell in ’peaceful deliverances’ (santa-vimokkha = formless attainments). They only possess the knowledge of the destruction of the taints; they do not possess the five mundane kinds of ’supreme knowledge’ (abhiññā) nor have they accessed the formless jhānas.⁸⁴

3. The attainment of the six abhiññā (including the three vijjā) depends on a certain degree of refined concentration. With sufficient concentration a person is able to direct the mind to generate a desired kind of abhiññā; it is not necessary to attain one kind of ’supreme knowledge’ before attaining another:

The required level of concentration to reach these attainments is as follows:

B. The concentration (samādhi) of the fourth jhāna is the highest form of concentration. Even the concentration of the formless jhānas is classified as the concentration of the fourth jhāna,⁸⁵ since the mental factors of the formless jhānas consist of the same two factors of the fourth jhāna: equanimity (upekkhā) and one-pointedness (ekaggatā).⁸⁶ The concentration of the fourth jhāna is universally applicable: it can be used, for example, as a basis for insight, for ’supreme knowledge’ (abhiññā), or for the ’attainment of extinction’.⁸⁷ There is, however, a special clause: the concentration of the formless jhānas is more refined and further from adverse conditions (paccanīka-dhamma) than the concentration of the fourth jhāna.⁸⁸ Even the different formless jhānas become progressively more refined.⁸⁹ It is for this reason that those who attain arahantship after attaining the fourth jhāna are classified as ’liberated by wisdom’ (paññāvimutta), not as ’liberated in both ways’ (ubhatobhāga-vimutta). To be classified as ’liberated in both ways’ one must have previously attained one of the formless jhānas.⁹⁰ Therefore, there is a proviso to the commentarial statement that the fourth jhāna is used as a basis for other attainments: in some cases the concentration of ordinary fourth jhāna is used, while in other cases the more refined concentration of fourth jhāna (of the formless jhānas) is required.

As mentioned earlier, literally speaking, persons ’liberated by wisdom’ (paññā-vimutta) have only attained the knowledge of the destruction of the taints; they have not attained other forms of knowledge (vijjā or abhiññā), nor have they attained the formless jhānas. Attainment of the three vijjā or the six abhiññā is the domain of ’one liberated in both ways’ (ubhatobhāga-vimutta), who has also attained formless jhāna.⁹¹ This is the standard definition as found in the Pali Canon.

The commentaries offer a more elaborate definition, which can be summarized as follows: at first, a person practises tranquillity meditation until attaining the fourth jhāna; this is followed by the attainments of all eight jhānas. These attainments, however, must be a result of practising the eight kasiṇa meditations (excluding the meditations on light and space).⁹² Having gained fluency in the eight attainments, the mind becomes receptive.⁹³ At this point a person only needs to enter the fourth jhāna, and then directs the mind to generate or apply one of the abhiññā, according to his wishes.⁹⁴ {456} As preparation a person must access the eight attainments, but at the time of achieving a ’supreme attainment’ (abhiññā), accessing the fourth jhāna is sufficient. Due to the previous cultivation of the eight jhānas, a person’s concentration in this case will be more refined than the concentration of someone who has never attained a level higher than the fourth jhāna.

From the angle of this commentarial explanation, one can say that the fourth jhāna is a basis for ’supreme knowledge’ (abhiññā). This conforms to the statement that the mind possessing eight factors, by developing the concentration of the fourth jhāna to the degree of the formless attainments, is ’suitable for application’; it is a basis, or ’proximate cause’ (padaṭṭhāna), for realizing any state that may be realized by direct knowledge.⁹⁵ Exceptions to this rule are those who have a strong ’previous connection’ (pubba-yoga): those who have made effort and accumulated virtue in the past, for instance the Buddha, the ’silent’ Buddhas (pacceka-buddha) and the chief disciples. They need not follow this procedure and become proficient in the formless jhānas; they simply need to be skilled in the fourth jhāna to achieve abhiññā.⁹⁶

The two passages above describing the Buddha’s awakening are compatible with this interpretation, even if they do not mention a ’previous connection’. In the first passage the Buddha accesses the fourth jhāna and then directs the mind to realize the three vijjā. Earlier in his life he had established a strong foundation in samatha and attained the eight jhānas while living with the teachers Āḷāra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāmaputta.⁹⁷ The second passage reveals that the Buddha developed proficiency in all levels of concentrative absorptions before his enlightenment.

C. Passages describing the extinction of perception and feeling (saññāvedayita-nirodha) can easily lead inexperienced readers to the false conclusion that a person who has attained this state reaches arahantship while abiding in this attainment:

This passage lists the sequence of practice and realization but does not include the circumstances or intermediate details. The reader should see this as a list of stages, not as the description of a single event. Compare it with a passage from the Pali Canon that provides more detail:

In the second passage the ’entering upon the extinction of perception and feeling’ and the ’destruction of the taints’ are separated. The attainment of saññāvedayita-nirodha is a supportive condition, bestowing a suitable level of concentration to the mind. Afterwards, ’by seeing with wisdom’ a person dwells in the taintless liberation of mind. These passages corroborate the fact that the two earlier outlines (for the way of practice in which tranquillity precedes insight) have essentially the same meaning.

D. As can be seen from the previous three points addressing various misunderstandings, the two main outlines describe a single way of practice from different angles. The first outline emphasizes the practice and highest realization that results from applying well-developed concentration to accomplish ’supreme knowledge’ and insight. The second outline describes intermediary stages of tranquillity meditation along with the true purpose of tranquillity: the final stage of insight. In this sense, the previous three points have already addressed the misunderstanding that the two formulas describe two distinct ways of practice.

E. Points two and three have already touched upon the subject of time in reference to practice and realization. In the first outline, the Buddha’s gradual attainment of the three vijjā occurs in the three ’watches’ of a single night. But in the case of other practitioners, the attainment of each vijjā or each abhiññā can happen either in quick succession or separated by months or years.⁹⁸

The second outline describing the Buddha’s concentrative attainments clearly indicates that a period of time elapses between each attainment. Examples of the same outline describing the attainments of other practitioners, however, do not mention time, which can give the impression that these attainments occur during a single time period. In fact, there is no uniform period of time that these attainments occur – it will vary from person to person.⁹⁹ The two outlines merely describe the different levels of attainment – they do not necessarily define the time involved. {458}

There are passages in the scriptures that confirm this fact, for example the story of Ven. Sāriputta in the Dīghanakha Sutta.¹⁰⁰ While the Buddha was giving a discourse on feeling (vedanā) and other topics in the Boar’s Cave on Mount Vulture Peak to the wanderer Dīghanakha, Sāriputta was standing behind the Buddha, fanning him. Reflecting on this Dhamma teaching, Sāriputta realized arahantship. This occurred after Sāriputta had been ordained for two weeks. Looking at this sutta in isolation, one may have the impression that Sāriputta had not reached any attainments to add to his ’opening of the eye of Dhamma’ (stream-entry) two weeks previous to this occasion; instead, at this moment, he realized complete awakening (arahantship). But by reading the Anupada Sutta one sees that during these two weeks Sāriputta was developing insight in conjunction with jhānas (yuganaddha-samatha-vipassanā – tranquillity and insight in unison) without interruption, from the first jhāna to the extinction of perception and feeling. This reveals that he had realized the fruit of non-returning before listening to the Dīghanakha Sutta.¹⁰¹

One last question that should be addressed is: can arahants develop tranquillity meditation and increase concentrative attainments or psychic powers after being enlightened? Those who use insight as a vehicle (vipassanā-yānika) have not previously attained jhāna, but at the moment of path-realization concentration becomes firm and they access the first jhāna. Afterwards, they can access the first jhāna (’fruit of attainment’ – phala-samāpatti) in order ’to abide in happiness in the present’, whenever they wish. The question here is whether they can develop higher levels of jhāna. The sub-commentaries claim they can. Their state of mind is conducive to refining and strengthening concentration. They probably develop samatha to promote a ’happy abiding in the present’ (diṭṭhadhamma-sukhavihāra). (See Note Abiding)

The same most likely holds true in regard to supernormal powers (abhiññā). For two reasons, however, arahants do not spend a lot of effort trying to attain new powers: first, they do not seek special psychic powers for their own advantage, and second, the benefits to others are not enough to warrant the difficulty and time required to develop them, as described in the Visuddhimagga. (See Note Difficulty of Psychic Powers) {459} Arahants are more likely to use the time and effort to teach others, which is called the ’miracle of teaching’ (anusāsanī-pāṭihāriya) and which the Buddha praised as the greatest of all miracles.¹⁰² This is superior to concerning oneself with mundane psychic powers, which are potentially harmful and lead ordinary people to be fascinated in a mysterious and obscure world that lies beyond their ability to understand and causes them to neglect more important activities.

Normally, people seek protection in external conditions or divine powers, which opposes fundamental Buddhist principles. Arahants who do not wield mundane psychic powers still possess what the Buddha called a ’noble power’ (ariya-iddhi): they are able to look at unendearing, repulsive people and things as endearing and not repulsive. Similarly, they can see attractive, alluring people and things as impermanent, conditioned, and unworthy of attachment. This is a greater power than walking on water, diving into the ground, or flying through the air, which the Buddha said are not ’noble’, carry risks, and do not lead to liberation.¹⁰³

These mundane psychic powers are not the essence of Buddhism and they are not an indication of a person’s value. One can find evidence of these powers before the time of the Buddha and in other traditions. They are only considered excellent when applied by one who is pure and fully awakened. For ordinary people they can be as dangerous as they are helpful. A fully awakened person or even someone attained to a lesser stage of awakening, who has moral conduct and perfect ’right-view’ (sammā-diṭṭhi), is superior to someone possessing the five mundane powers but devoid of these virtues. Most of the Buddha’s arahant disciples are ’liberated by wisdom’ (paññā-vimutta), without elevating to higher levels of concentrative attainment, and even many of the disciples ’liberated both ways’ (ubhatobhāga-vimutta) did not generate the five mundane powers. {460}

Basic Principles of Insight Practice

The contemplation of conditioned phenomena giving rise to clear understanding and to seeing things as they truly are is an essential ingredient to realizing path and fruit. Everyone who practises for the goal of Buddhism, whether they use tranquillity or insight as a vehicle, and regardless of which of the four modes of practice (tranquillity preceded by insight, etc.) they follow, must pass this stage of insight (vipassanā) meditation. Someone who uses insight as a vehicle will practise in this way from the beginning, whereas someone using tranquillity as a vehicle will apply this meditation in the final stages.

Drawing upon the previous section on tranquillity meditation, this contemplation is an extension of the earlier cited passage: By seeing with wisdom the taints are completely destroyed. In other words, it refers to ’liberation by wisdom’ (paññā-vimutti). There are many standard definitions in the Pali Canon to describe this path of insight. Before looking at these definitions, let us examine some passages describing the Buddha’s enlightenment (which are also outlines of insight). This will reveal how a single event can be explained in many different ways:

There are many standard definitions for the realization of arahantship through insight by the Buddha’s disciples. Some are similar to the passages presented above of the Buddha’s enlightenment while others vary, but essentially they are the same: phenomena (most often the five aggregates or the twelve sense spheres) are divided into different parts and their true nature is examined according to the three characteristics: impermanence, dukkha and not-self. Many passages focus on the belief in self and emphasize the characteristic of not-self. Some passages trace the relationship between conditions in the context of Dependent Origination. From the angle of Dhamma practice, these passages all refer to one or more of the groups found in the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya-dhamma).¹⁰⁷ The outlines explaining particular ways of contemplation can be extremely helpful for insight practice if one can capture their meaning and not get confused by the technical language. Below are some examples of these outlines; the commentaries say the Buddha gave these teachings on different occasions depending on the disposition of the listener.¹⁰⁸

Contemplations on the Five Aggregates

The contemplation in this passage on the three characteristics is sometimes changed to similar contemplations, for example: ’Form is Māra’,¹¹⁰ ’feelings are hot embers’, ’form is subject to arising and cessation’, etc.¹¹¹ {464}

Contemplations on the Sense Spheres

The contemplation in this passage on the three characteristics is sometimes changed to similar contemplations, for example: ’The eye is obscured’, ’the eye is burning’, and ’the eye is subject to destruction’.¹¹²

General Inquiry

There are many variations to this passage above, indicating that self-identity, personality view (sakkāya-diṭṭhi), and other wrong views (micchā-diṭṭhi) stem from attaching to and misunderstanding the five aggregates.¹²¹

All-Encompassing Contemplations

Systematic Outlines of Meditation Practice

The Buddha’s teachings on ways to realize Nibbāna usually include the contemplations of phenomena as presented earlier in this chapter. When these teachings are presented systematically, then the stages of practice are usually presented in a broad, general sense. The most detailed and frequent systematic teaching outlines the ’holy life’ or way of practice of a bhikkhu from the time of ordination up to the cessation of the taints.¹²⁵ A similar teaching given occasionally by the Buddha and his disciples is that of the fifteen ways of practice (caraṇa) and the three kinds of knowledge (vijjā).¹²⁶ Alternatively, one finds a group of gradual attainments, for example the seven purifications¹²⁷ or the nine purifications.¹²⁸ We can assume that the reason these teachings are presented in a general way is that the specific details of practice were transmitted through direct application, according to the methods particular teachers used to train their students. Minor details would have differed among different teachers. These styles of practice would have been passed down until the time of the commentators, who compiled and recorded some of them. The most prominent of these later texts is the Visuddhimagga.

The Visuddhimagga presents a gradual course of practice, both in regard to external activities as well as to the development of wisdom. In terms of wisdom, it outlines the stages of higher knowledge (ñāṇa). Its general framework follows the teaching on the three ’trainings’ (sikkhā) and then expands these in terms of the seven purifications (visuddhi). The gradual development of insight (vipassanā-ñāṇa) found in the Visuddhimagga is an expansion from material found in the Paṭisambhidāmagga.¹²⁹ Below is a summary of the systematic teaching found in the Visuddhimagga.¹³⁰

First, let us look at the meaning of some important terms:

• Visuddhi: purity; gradual purification; qualities that purify beings, enabling a perfection of the threefold training and leading to the realization of Nibbāna. There are seven stages, to be discussed below.

• Pariññā: comprehensive knowledge, of which there are three kinds:¹³¹

1. Ñāta-pariññā: familiarity; recognition; knowledge of specific attributes. For example, one knows ’sensation’ (vedanā) and knows that it has the quality of ’feeling’ sense impressions; one knows perception (saññā) and knows that perception has the function of designation. One knows ’what things are’. {476}

2. Tīraṇa-pariññā: investigation; one applies a deeper level of wisdom, by knowing the universal characteristics of things: that they follow natural laws and are characterized by impermanence, stress, and nonself. For example, one knows that feeling and perception are unstable, of the nature to change, and not-self. One knows ’how things are’.

3. Pahāna-pariññā: abandonment; knowledge that leads to letting go of attachment, to freedom, and to an absence of infatuation. One knows how to respond to and behave in relation to things. For example, knowing that things are impermanent, one abandons the perception of permanence (nicca-saññā). One knows ’how to act’.

• Vipassanā-ñāṇa: insight knowledge; knowledge that gives rise to insight; knowledge that leads to a thorough understanding of phenomena and to the end of suffering. It is divided into nine kinds (see below).

The different kinds of knowledge (ñāṇa) below that are followed by numbers in parentheses are part of the more recently formed group of sixteen kinds of knowledge (soḷasa-ñāṇa). They are used to verify a person’s level of attainment.¹³²

Principles of Practice According to the Visuddhimagga

Training in Higher Morality (adhisīla-sikkhā)

Apart from keeping moral precepts, it is recommended to undertake, as is suitable to one’s personal disposition, some of the thirteen austere practices (dhutaṅga), which were permitted by the Buddha, in order to increase contentment, effort, and seclusion, to eliminate defilements, to purify one’s moral conduct, to complement and fulfil one’s other religious observances, and to support one’s overall spiritual practice.

Training in Higher Mind (adhicitta-sikkhā; concentration)

Training in Higher Wisdom (adhipaññā-sikkhā)

A. Knowledge of Conditions (ñāta-pariññā)

Recognition of the Noble Truth of Suffering:

Appendix 1: Jhāna

The jhānas will be discussed in more detail in the section on right concentration,¹³⁸ but since they have been mentioned here I will provide some basic information.

The four jhānas – the standard group found in the suttas – are the four fine-material jhānas. In the Abhidhamma these four jhānas are expanded into five jhānas. The fifth jhāna is equivalent to the fourth in the original quartet. (The quartet is called jhāna-catukkanaya, the quintet jhāna-pañcakanaya.)

Jhāna (’focused attention’, ’meditation’) is a state of heightened concentration, of the mind being one-pointed on an object. There are different levels of this concentration based on refinement, depth, and strength. These levels can be determined by the mental qualities present during these periods of concentration. These qualities are: applied thought (vitakka), sustained thought (vicāra), bliss (pīti), joy (sukha), equanimity (upekkhā), and one-pointedness (ekaggatā). The four fine-material jhānas have the following qualities:

1. First jhāna: applied thought, sustained thought, bliss, joy, and one-pointedness.

2. Second jhāna: bliss, joy, and one-pointedness.

3. Third jhāna: joy and one-pointedness.

4. Fourth jhāna: equanimity and one-pointedness.

The jhānas higher than these are the formless jhānas (arūpa-jhāna). The formless jhānas have the qualities of equanimity and one-pointedness, but are increasingly more refined depending on the objects of concentration. For more detail, see the section on vimokkha (levels 4-7).¹³⁹ {425}

The term jhāna can be used in a broad sense for ’focus’, ’examination’, or ’pondering’. Sometimes it is used in a negative sense for an activity criticized by the Buddha. For example, it can be a way of harbouring the five hindrances – lust, malice, despondency, agitation and doubt – in the heart. To allow these hindrances to gnaw away at the mind in a state of brooding is also called jhāna.¹⁴⁰ Jhāna is also used in the verb form for animals, for example an owl staring at a mouse or a fox hunting for fish.¹⁴¹ Sometimes it is used in the context of vipassanā meditation meaning ’investigation’ or ’reflection’. The commentaries occasionally divide jhāna into two types: the focusing of an object in samatha meditation (ārammaṇūpanijjhāna = 8 jhāna-samāpatti), and the reflection giving rise to insight into the three characteristics (lakkhaṇūpanijjhāna = vipassanā). Even path and fruit can be called jhāna since these are referred to as ’eradicating defilements’ and ’focusing on the unsubstantiality (suññatā) of Nibbāna’.¹⁴²

Appendix 2: Is It Possible To Develop Insight or to Become Enlightened in Jhāna?

{481} There is much debate as to whether it is possible to develop insight or to apply wise reflection while in jhāna. Those people who claim it is not possible tend to refer to the ’factors’ of jhāna: in the first jhāna a person possesses applied and sustained thought (vitakka and vicāra), while in higher jhānas a person has at most bliss, joy and one-pointedness, so in this case how can someone be engaged in thinking or reflection? In fact, these factors of jhāna are simply used as criteria for determining whether one has attained jhāna and for determining the level of jhāna. It is not implied that these are the only mental qualities present in jhāna.

In fact, the mind is endowed with many qualities while in jhāna, as is verified in the suttas and the older texts of the Abhidhamma. For example, M. III. 26-7 describes the mental qualities associated with every level of jhāna, from the first jhāna to the sphere of nothingness, including: enthusiasm (chanda), determination (adhimokkha), energy (viriya), mindfulness (sati), equanimity (upekkhā), and attention (manasikāra). Similarly, Dhs. 31 and 75 describe the numerous qualities present at each level of jhāna, especially in ’transcendent’ jhāna,¹⁴³ including: the five spiritual faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom, the complete set of eight factors of the Noble Path, and both tranquillity and insight. Some later commentaries¹⁴⁴ expand upon the passages at PsA. I. 132, Vism. 148-9 and NdA. I. 133, and make it clear that concentration and wisdom act in unison in ’the mind of jhāna’ (jhāna-citta). {482}

The reason that applied and sustained thought are absent in higher jhānas is because the mind is firmly established and greatly empowered. It is not necessary to turn attention (vitakka) to objects in the mind or to sustain attention (vicāra) on these objects. The reflection present in the mind excels these modes of attention. The Visuddhimagga describes the development of insight in this way:

One can interpret the phrase ’should emerge … and he should discern’ as describing one particular mode of practice, since the sub-commentary of this text explains:

There is disagreement among the sub-commentaries as to whether it is possible to develop insight in jhāna or whether one must first exit from jhāna. Apart from AA. IV. 195 and the VismṬ.,¹⁴⁵ the only other passage giving evidence of developing insight while in jhāna is DA. II. 512, which refers to arahants who are liberated by wisdom (paññā-vimutta):

All remaining passages describe first exiting from jhāna, especially when referring directly to the development of insight. The descriptions are similar, for example:

Taking these passages as a whole, the commentarial opinion is generally that if one enters jhāna one must first exit in order to develop insight. Since there is no clear explanation in the commentaries and sub-commentaries, it is difficult to definitively settle the various arguments, but it is possible to strike some sort of compromise by connecting evidence from different sources.

The format for developing insight by emerging from jhāna and contemplating conditioned phenomena comes from secondary texts of the Tipiṭaka. A clear example is the interpretation of this passage in the Suttanipāta:

The Cūḷaniddesa, a secondary text, explains the phrase ’he clearly discerns the sphere of nothingness’ as: He enters and emerges from the sphere of nothingness, and discerns the mind and mental constituents arising in that sphere of nothingness as impermanent, subject to stress, [etc].¹⁴⁸ The commentaries of both texts offer a similar explanation.¹⁴⁹

These explanations from secondary texts and sub-commentaries all follow the outline of the Abhidhamma. The Abhidhamma presents a detailed analysis of things and breaks the mind down into separate mind moments, describing the activity of the mind in relation to other factors, for example the involvement with sense impressions. The Abhidhamma claims it is not possible to develop insight in jhāna because at the moment of concentrative attainment the mind is one-pointed on the ’object of awareness’ (ārammaṇa) pertaining to jhāna. The objects of awareness involved in insight practice are separate and therefore one cannot develop insight during the same mind moment of jhāna.¹⁵⁰ One must first take attention away from the object of awareness (in jhāna) and focus on another object, which means emerging from jhāna.¹⁵¹ This is not a big step: it simply requires an adjustment or interruption in the stream of awareness (of one-pointedness) and an entering into ’subliminal consciousness’ (bhavaṅga), which is the equivalent to exiting jhāna.¹⁵² {483}

Having emerged from jhāna, the mind immediately resumes the stability of ’attainment concentration’ (appanā-samādhi) due to the strength of mind developed in jhāna. (People may misunderstand that exiting jhāna implies returning to a state of mental disturbance or confusion.) A person then uses attainment concentration to develop insight, by contemplating the factors present at the level of jhāna from which he has just emerged and seeing them in light of the three characteristics.¹⁵³ These factors become the objects of insight. (To speak in a comprehensive way, a person contemplates aspects of jhāna (jhāna-dhamma), things associated with jhāna (jhānasampayutta-dhamma), aspects of attainment (samāpatti-dhamma), things associated with attainment (samāpattisampayutta-dhamma), the mind and mental constituents arising in jhāna, or even all conditioned phenomena.)

The concentration of jhāna (and even more so of the higher psychic attainments) makes the practice of insight more effective and proficient, which is the special value of insight preceded by tranquillity meditation.¹⁵⁴ The commentaries use the expression ’developing insight with jhāna as a basis’ for this process of applying the strength of concentration derived from jhāna to contemplate conditioned reality. Jhāna here is called ’jhāna acting as foundation for insight’,¹⁵⁵ and various terms are used according to the level of jhāna reached, e.g.: ’using first jhāna as foundation’, ’using second jhāna as foundation’, ’using the sphere of nothingness as foundation’, ’insight with first jhāna as a basis’, ’insight with second jhāna as a basis’, ’insight with formless jhāna as a basis’, etc. The higher the level of jhāna, the deeper and stronger the concentration applied for insight.

The wisdom gleaned from this insight practice can also be classified according to the level of jhāna, e.g.: ’the insight wisdom of first jhāna’ or ’first jhāna insight-wisdom’.¹⁵⁶ The level of Path attainment (magga) is dependent on the level of jhāna used as a basis, except in the cases of the ’sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception’ and the ’extinction of perception and feeling’. (On the relationship between magga and jhāna, see a divergent opinion at e.g. DhsA. 228 and Vism. 666-7, which was referred to earlier.)

We can see from the above that the teachings on developing insight while in jhāna and those on first exiting jhāna before practising insight are not contradictory. The first can be called the teaching from the suttas and is more general. In this teaching, the word ’jhāna’ refers to both the actual state of jhāna and to the stability of mind generated by the power of jhāna. The expression ’developing insight in jhāna’ refers to entering jhāna and then using the strength of jhāna to practise insight. The second can be called the teaching of the Abhidhamma and is more specific.¹⁵⁷ Here the definition of ’jhāna’ is restricted to the process during which the mind is one-pointed and focused on the meditation object, say the ’mental image’ (nimitta) of breathing or of a kasiṇa object.

The Abhidhamma explains that the mind in jhāna is one-pointed on the object of awareness throughout. When the mind begins to apply wisdom for contemplation, the focus of awareness must move from that original object. The Abhidhamma distinguishes the state of mind strengthened by jhāna as a separate process, one of releasing the object of tranquillity and exiting jhāna, although they grant that the mind is still exceptionally concentrated. The practitioner uses this strength of mind to develop insight and turns to the jhāna just exited along with its attributes, e.g.: applied attention (vitakka), sustained attention (vicāra), bliss (pīti), happiness (sukha), enthusiasm (chanda), and energy (viriya), as the objects of contemplation. This change of focus results in exiting jhāna and entering the ’vital continuum’ (bhavaṅga). From this point on, one begins a new stage of meditation, of insight meditation (vipassanā). {484}

By making this distinction a new term was necessary to describe this process, since despite exiting jhāna the mind does not revert back to the state preceding jhāna. The commentators coined the expression ’using jhāna as a foundation’. They also referred to the principle of the ’vital continuum’ (bhavaṅga-citta) to define the exit or break from the state of jhāna.¹⁵⁸ From this evidence, we can conclude that the general statement ’developing insight in jhāna’ is equivalent to the more specific statements found in the commentaries: ’Having entered jhāna, one exits and contemplates conditioned phenomena’;¹⁵⁹ ’Exiting the foundational jhāna, one contemplates phenomena’;¹⁶⁰ ’Establishing the jhāna as a basis, one develops insight’;¹⁶¹ ’Having attained jhāna, one develops insight with jhāna as basis’;¹⁶² and: ’Exiting concentrative attainment, one practises insight with a firmly established mind’.¹⁶³

The essential message of the sutta teachings and the Abhidhamma teachings is the same: to apply the power of concentration generated in jhāna and thus to foster the optimum conditions for wisdom to discern the truth. By entering jhāna the mind is prepared for the next stage, of contemplation (vipassanā). Because of the reliance on jhāna, the commentaries call this process ’insight with jhāna as a basis’ or ’insight with jhāna as a cause’. This explanation is consonant with the frequently mentioned sutta passage: When my concentrated mind was thus purified, bright … malleable, wieldy, steady … I directed it to knowledge….¹⁶⁴ With jhāna a person thus prepares the mind for engagement. This state of mind is called ’resolute’ (abhinīhārakkhama), and it leads to ever loftier attainments. Based on sutta passages, the commentators attribute nine qualities to this state of mind. The mind is:¹⁶⁵

1. composed (samāhita);

2. pure (parisuddha);

3. bright (pariyodāta);

4. clear and open (anaṅgaṇa);

5. free of blemish (vigatūpakkilesa);

6. malleable (mudubhūta);

7. fit for work (kammanīya);

8. steadfast (ṭhita);

9. imperturbable (āneñjappatta).

In any case, someone who attains jhāna but does not use it as a basis for insight will only develop insight with the assistance of ’access’ (upacāra) or ’momentary’ (khaṇika) concentration. This will be similar to someone who develops insight without having ever attained jhāna.

Appendix 3: Is It Possible To Develop Insight While Dwelling In the Realm of Neither-Perception-Nor-Non-Perception?

The states of neither-perception-nor-non-perception (nevasaññānāsaññāyatana) and the extinction of perception and feeling (saññāvedayita-nirodha)¹⁶⁶ are classified as attainments in which one reaps the fruit of meditation practice; they are not used directly for the application of insight. The lower concentrative attainments, from the realm of nothingness and below, can be used for both experiencing the fruit of practice and for applying insight and reflection. These lower attainments are still clearly accompanied by perception and other mental qualities, as testified by the description of the realm of nothingness as the pinnacle of perceptual attainment.¹⁶⁷ The realm of nothingness is the highest attainment still accompanied by perception. It is called ’the peak of perception’ (saññagga), because it is the highest mundane attainment that can be used for insight practice.¹⁶⁸ {485}

Nevasaññānāsaññāyatana is exceptionally refined and is therefore referred to as possessing neither ’perception’ nor ’non-perception’. Another name for this state is the ’attainment of residual formations’ (saṅkhārāvasesa-samāpatti), because the conditioned attributes of this state are of a most subtle nature. In most cases, these attributes are insufficiently distinct or coarse for insight practice. Let alone developing insight while abiding in this state, it is almost impossible to contemplate the attributes even after exiting. It requires at least the level of wisdom of someone like Ven. Sāriputta, and even he was only able to contemplate them as a group (kalāpa-vipassanā). Only Buddhas are capable of discerning and analyzing each individual attribute (anupada-vipassanā).¹⁶⁹

The scriptures refer to the eight concentrative attainments (samāpatti) as ’bases for insight’,¹⁷⁰ ’bases for the fruits of attainment’,¹⁷¹ and collectively as a ’basis for the attainment of cessation’.¹⁷² This is not the case with the realm of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, which does not function in an active way. This is seen clearly in relation to the attainment of cessation, for which the active attainment is the realm of nothingness; although the realm of neither-perception-nor-non-perception is an essential intermediate stage, it acts more as a corridor.¹⁷³ Even if one has attained the gradual stages of concentration up to the realm of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, one will be unable to enter the attainment of cessation if one has not prepared the mind adequately between the realm of nothingness and the realm of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. And one will have to return to the realm of nothingness to fulfil this prerequisite.¹⁷⁴

From this we may conclude that the realm of neither-perception-nor-non-perception is limited to experiencing the fruits of this particular attainment. When exiting this realm, one exits definitively: no mind states at this level of consciousness remain. In regard to insight practice, unlike other attainments of jhāna, one does not exit the realm of neither-perception-nor-non-perception to shift one’s focus of attention, but rather one drops to a lower level of attainment: the realm of nothingness.¹⁷⁵ This is an exit from the attainment in all respects.

As a preliminary to insight practice, the suttas therefore use the expression ’exiting the realm of neither-perception-nor-non-perception’. There is no specific mention of using the realm of neither-perception-nor-non-perception as a ’basis for insight’. One can still use the expression ’basis for insight’, as the mind is highly refined after exiting from the realm of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, although technically the mind applies access-concentration associated with the realm of nothingness. Note also that the concentration in all the formless jhānas is of the level of the fourth jhāna; it is just increasingly more refined and removed from mental disturbances (paccanīka-dhamma).¹⁷⁶

The ’extinction of perception and feeling’ (saññāvedayita-nirodha) is clearly confined to experiencing the fruits of this particular attainment. It is not possible to develop insight while in this state, since no perceptions or feelings (along with other aggregates – khandha) accompany this attainment that can be a focus for contemplation. A unique characteristic of this state is that it is the only attainment (samāpatti) that is not classified as concentration (samādhi), a fact that corroborates the assertion that one must first exit this state to develop insight.¹⁷⁷ {486}

When exiting this state to practise insight one ought to abide in the highest level of concentration that can be used for this activity, that is, the state of nothingness. (One can use any level of concentration including ’momentary-concentration’ – khaṇika-samādhi, which is not even a level of jhāna, since someone who has reached a higher level of attainment has mastery over lower levels.) In any case, although the ’extinction of perception and feeling’ cannot directly be used to develop insight, accessing this attainment greatly refines the mind and has tremendous benefits for spiritual practice.

Appendix 4: The Mind-Moment at Realization of Path and Fruit

Several commentarial passages address the teaching that at the moment of realizing arahantship the mind must reach ’attainment-concentration’ (appanā-samādhi = jhāna), even for someone who has never previously entered jhāna.¹⁷⁸ Following the model of the Abhidhamma, these passages outline the sequence of the mind’s activity at the moment of realizing path and fruit¹⁷⁹ for one who uses insight as a vehicle (vipassanā-yānika). This outline can be illustrated thus (the numbers in parentheses refer to distinct mind-moments):

(Saṅkhārupekkhā-ñāṇa¹⁸⁰ → bhavaṅga →) mano-dvārāvajjana (mental apprehension) → (1) parikamma (preparation)¹⁸¹ → (2) upacāra (approach) → (3) anuloma (adaptation) → (4) gotrabhū (maturation) → (5) magga-citta → (6-7) phala-citta¹⁸² → bhavaṅga.

Alternatively:

(Saṅkhārupekkhā-ñāṇa → bhavaṅga →) mano-dvārāvajjana → (1) upacāra → (2) anuloma → (3) gotrabhū → (4) magga-citta → (5-6-7) phala-citta → bhavaṅga.

The process following from the first bhavaṅga and including maturation is called ’sense-sphere impulsion’ (kāmāvacara-javana). As a pair, magga- and phala-citta are called ’transcendent attainment impulsion’ (lokuttara-appanājavana).

Here is a broad outline of the sequence of the mind’s activity for one who uses tranquillity as a vehicle (samatha-yānika):

Bhavaṅga → ñāṇa-vīthi (consciousness-process of knowledge) → bhavaṅga → vipassanā-vīthi (consciousness-process of insight)¹⁸³ → bhavaṅga → magga-vīthi¹⁸⁴ → bhavaṅga.

In any case, the knowledge and clear insight arising at the moment of awakening, which produces a profound transformation by dispelling mental defilement and altering personality, must be an experience that permeates the entire heart and mind.

Appendix 5: Non-returners After Death

The Abhidhamma states that after death non-returners reappear in the Pure Abodes (Suddhāvāsā) and classifies the Pure Abodes as a realm of the fourth jhāna.¹⁸⁵ The Abhidhammatthavibhāvinī, however, explains that non-returners will appear in a realm corresponding to their particular level of jhāna; the only fixed rule is that the Pure Abodes are exclusively for non-returners.¹⁸⁶ This raises the doubt as to how the non-returners (e.g. those mentioned in the Visuddhimagga and Visuddhimagga Mahāṭīkā) who are pure insight practitioners (suddhavipassanā-yānika or sukkha-vipassaka) and do not attain the fourth jhāna can appear in the Pure Abodes.¹⁸⁷ The Abhidhammatthavibhāvinī responds to this doubt by saying: Although those non-returners are pure insight practitioners, at the time of death they invariably generate the attainments (samāpatti) because they have developed concentration completely.¹⁸⁸ In any case, suttas of the Pali Canon confirm that non-returners who have reached any of the first four jhānas all reappear in the Pure Abodes.¹⁸⁹ Here too the commentaries explain that these non-returners attain the fourth jhāna before reappearing in the Pure Abodes.¹⁹⁰

Appendix 6: Attainment of Cessation (nirodha-samāpatti)

Do not be confused by the passage in the Visuddhimagga referring to those monks who are about to enter ’attainment of cessation’ (nirodha-samāpatti), that states:

The Visuddhimagga Mahāṭīkā explains this passage as: ’Attainment of cessation is similar to attaining “Nibbāna with no remaining fuel” (anupādisesa-nibbāna).’¹⁹¹ A person in this attainment has no perception and feeling and resembles someone who has died.¹⁹² The above passage does not imply that ’attainment of cessation’ is the same as Nibbāna; rather, one relies on nirodha-samāpatti in order to realize Nibbāna; it is one means of coming into contact with Nibbāna. It is normal for awakened people to regularly be in contact with Nibbāna. While abiding in ’fruition attainment’ (phala-samāpatti), noble beings of all stages fix Nibbāna as their object of awareness.

A passage in the Aṅguttara Nikāya states:

Here, ’extinction of perception and feeling’ (saññāvedayita-nirodha) is not Nibbāna but a basis for which to realize Nibbāna. Nibbāna is equal to the destruction of the taints.¹⁹³ Additional suttas state that the eight vimokkha (note that nirodha-samāpatti is a kind of vimokkha) are to be realized with the body,¹⁹⁴ while the end of the āsava (a definition of Nibbāna) is to be realized by wisdom.¹⁹⁵ A passage in the Saṁyutta Nikāya states:

Note also that at the Buddha’s Parinibbāna he entered the progressive abidings of concentrative attainment (anupubbavihāra-samāpatti), from the first jhāna up to the extinction of perception and feeling, but he did not enter final Nibbāna in nirodha-samāpatti.¹⁹⁶ He gradually returned to the first jhāna and then entered successive jhānas up to the fourth jhāna, at which point he attained final Nibbāna.