Awakened Beings

Awakened Beings

Introduction

There is a well-known teaching in the Buddhist scriptures describing the stages of enlightenment – the stages of realizing Nibbāna. This comprises the four paths (magga) and four fruits (phala):

  1. The path and fruit of stream-entry
    (sotāpatti-magga and sotāpatti-phala).

  2. The path and fruit of once-returning
    (sakadāgāmi-magga and sakadāgāmi-phala).

  3. The path and fruit of non-returning
    (anāgāmi-magga and anāgāmi-phala).

  4. The path and fruit of arahantship
    (arahatta-magga and arahatta-phala).

The first ’path’ of stream-entry is also called ’vision’ (dassana), because it refers to the first glimpse of Nibbāna. The following three ’paths’, of once-returning, non-returning, and arahantship, are collectively known as ’cultivation’ (bhāvanā), since they involve a development in the Dhamma initially realized at the moment of stream-entry.1 {403}

Those who have reached complete realization of Nibbāna, as well as those who obtain a first glimpse of the goal and are thus guaranteed to reach it, are classified as true disciples of the Buddha. They are known as the ’community of disciples’ (sāvaka-saṅgha), as seen for example in the verse praising the attributes of the Sangha: ’They are the Blessed One’s disciples who have practised well.’

There are many special terms used to describe these true disciples. The most frequently used term is ariya-puggala (or ariya), translated as ’cultivated’, ’noble’, or ’far from the foe’ (i.e. far from mental defilement). The term ariya-puggala was originally used in a general sense; only later was it used specifically in relation to the stages of enlightenment.2 The original term used in the Pali Canon when distinguishing the stages of enlightenment is dakkhiṇeyya (or dakkhiṇeyya-puggala). In any case, the terms ariya-puggala and dakkhiṇeyya-puggala were adopted from Brahmanism. The Buddha altered their meanings, as he did with many other words, for example: brahmā, brāhmaṇa (’brahmin’), nahātaka (’washed clean’), and vedagū (’sage’).

The Buddha gave the term ariya a new definition, different from that prescribed by the brahmins. The word ariya (Sanskrit: ārya; English: Aryan) originally referred to a race of people who migrated from the northwest regions and invaded the Indian subcontinent several thousand years ago. As a result of this invasion, the native inhabitants retreated either south or into the forests and mountains. The Aryans considered themselves cultivated; they disdained the native people, marking them as savages and enslaving them. Later, when the Aryans had consolidated their rule and established the caste system, the native peoples were accorded the lowest tier as sudda (Śūdra; labourers). The term ariya (’noble’) designated the three upper castes of khattiya (Kṣatriyaḥ; warriors, kings, administrators), brāhmaṇa (brahmins; scholars, priests, teachers), and vessa (Vaishya; merchants). Suddas and all others were labelled anariya (’ignoble’, ’base’).3 A person’s caste was determined at birth; there was no way to choose or alter one’s position.

When the Buddha began teaching, he declared that nobility does not depend on birth, but rather on righteousness (Dhamma), which stems from spiritual practice and training. Whoever acts in line with noble principles (ariya-dhamma) is ’noble’ (ariya) irrespective of birth or caste. Whoever does not is anariya. Truth is not restricted to the dictates of brahmins and the Vedas,4 but is objective and universal. A person who has realized these universal truths is noble, despite having never studied the Vedas. Because knowledge of these truths makes one noble, they are called the ’noble truths’.5 {404} Technically, those who understand the noble truths are stream-enterers and above. Therefore, the scriptures generally use the term ariya as synonymous with dakkhiṇeyya-puggala (’those worthy of offerings’), a term which will be discussed shortly.

The Four Noble Truths (ariya-sacca) are sometimes referred to as the ariya-dhamma.6 The term ariya-dhamma, however, does not have a fixed definition and is used in other contexts.7 It can refer to the ten ’wholesome ways of action’ (kusala-kammapatha)8 and to the five precepts.9 Such definitions are not contradictory, since those householders who truly keep the five precepts their entire lives, without blind adherence (sīlabbata-parāmāsa) and without blemish, are stream-enterers and above. The standard commentarial definition of ariya in reference to ’noble’ people encompasses the Buddha, Pacceka-Buddhas10 and disciples of the Buddha,11 although in some places the definition refers to the Buddha alone.12 When qualifying a spiritual practice or factor, ariya is equivalent to ’transcendent’ (lokuttara),13 although this is not always strictly the case.14

Although the definition of ariya is rather broad, one can summarize that when the term is used in reference to people it is identical to dakkhiṇeyya-puggala, meaning those who have gone beyond the state of ordinary persons and become members of the sāvaka-saṅgha (today, more often called the ariya-saṅgha). (See also Note Commentarial Categories of Ariyas). In the commentaries and sub-commentaries this definition is almost fixed, with very few exceptions. In the scriptures, the term ariya tends to be used in a general sense, not specifying the level of awakening. Dakkhiṇeyya is the more specific technical term and is used less often than ariya.

Commentarial Categories of Ariyas

Some exceptions include passages at: J. II. 42; 280; J. III. 81; J. IV. 293. The commentaries explain these exceptions by classifying ariya into four categories:

  1. ācāra-ariya – noble by behaviour; those grounded in virtue;

  2. dassana-ariya – noble in appearance; those possessing features that instil confidence;

  3. liṅga-ariya – noble by ’gender’, i.e. those living the life of a spiritual renunciant (samaṇa);

  4. paṭivedha-ariya – noble through realization, i.e. the Buddha, Pacceka-Buddhas and enlightened disciples of the Buddha.

J. II. 42, 280; J. III. 354; J. IV. 291.

The Buddha extended the meaning of the term ariya, referring to members of a new community, i.e. Buddhist disciples who are ennobled by practising the Middle Way. These disciples live ethically, non-violently and in harmony. They are dedicated to promoting wellbeing for all. {405} Their actions are not ruled by the enticements and threats of religious officials, who often cater to people’s selfish needs. Moral principles may be perverted due to the decisions of such religious authorities. An example of this is the sacrifice of animals performed by brahmins.

Dakkhiṇeyya translates as ’one worthy of offerings’.15 The original Brahmanic meaning of this word referred to the payment received for performing ceremonies, particularly sacrifices (yañña; Sanskrit: yajña). The Vedas describe the forms of payment, including: gold, silver, household goods, furniture, vehicles, grain, livestock, young women, and land. The more prestigious the ceremony the greater the reward. For example, in the Ashvamedha (’royal horse sacrifice’) the king shared the spoils of war with the priests. The recipients of these gifts were invariably the brahmins, because they were the only ones entitled to perform the rituals.

When the Buddha began teaching he spoke in favour of abolishing animal sacrifice, and he transformed the meanings of the words yañña and dakkhiṇā. He developed the meaning of yañña into cruelty-free almsgiving, while dakkhiṇā in the Buddhist teachings refers to suitable gifts and faithful donations, not a fee or recompense.16 If it is a reward then it is a reward for virtue, but it is more aptly called an offering in honour of virtue. In addition, these gifts are not excessively lavish, but simple and basic requisites essential for life.17

Persons worthy of these offerings have trained themselves and are full of goodness. They embody a virtuous and joyful life. Their very existence in the world is a blessing to others. When they go out into the wider society and impart these virtuous principles, living as an example and instructing others, they offer a priceless service to the world. And these individuals do not demand or wish for recompense. They rely on the offerings of the four requisites merely to sustain life. Offerings made to such people bear great fruit because the offerings permit goodness to manifest and increase in the world. These people are called ’worthy of offerings’ (dakkhiṇeyya) because offerings made to them yield valuable results. They are also referred to as the ’incomparable field of merit’,18 because they are a source of virtue to blossom and spread in the world.19 {406}

People give suitable remuneration to ordinary teachers; is it not appropriate for people to give simple gifts to those who teach virtue and the ways of truth? In today’s society people whose business causes destruction – harming the economy, the environment, or even human goodness – receive all sorts of lavish rewards.20 Is it not right that those who protect the world and protect virtue by being moderate in consumption should receive support? Those who consume only what is necessary have minimal impact on the world’s resources; they take little and give much in return.

The making of offerings differs from ordinary giving; one does not give out of personal affection, obligation, or an expectation to get something in return. One gives with faith in the power of goodness, appreciating that the recipient is a member of the Buddhist monastic community (saṅgha), or that he or she upholds virtue. In any case, the recipient must possess the necessary qualities to be entitled to these offerings. For example, an unenlightened monk or novice who eats the almsfood of lay-supporters is ’indebted’, despite having moral conduct and making effort in Dhamma practice. He should hasten to free himself from this debt by achieving the state of a dakkhiṇeyya-puggala. Ven. Mahā Kassapa, for example, claimed that he was in debt to the laypeople for seven days, between being ordained and realizing arahantship.21 After his ordination he made effort in Dhamma practice as an unawakened person for seven days, before reaching the fruit of arahantship and becoming one worthy of the offerings by the faithful laypeople.

The commentaries categorize monks and novices who receive offerings in four ways:

  1. Those who behave immorally. They do not have the inner qualities fitting for a mendicant and merely wear the outward signs of a monk. They are undeserving of offerings; their use of offerings is called theyya-paribhoga: ’to consume as a thief’.

  2. Those who have moral conduct but do not reflect with wisdom when using the four requisites. For example, when eating almsfood they neglect to consider: ’I eat not for pleasure or beautification. I use almsfood only for the maintenance and nourishment of this body, to keep it healthy, to sustain the holy life.’ Such use of offerings is called iṇa-paribhoga: ’to consume as a debtor’.22 {407}

  3. Sekha, or the first seven of the eight dakkhiṇeyya-puggala (see below). Their use of offerings is called dāyajja-paribhoga: ’to consume as heirs’. They have the right to use these offerings as heirs to the Buddha, who was supreme among the dakkhiṇeyya-puggala.

  4. Arahants, who are freed from the enslavement of craving. Their virtue makes them truly worthy of offerings. Their use of offerings is called sāmi-paribhoga: ’to consume as masters’.23

Here we can see that the term dakkhiṇeyya is used in both social and economic contexts. The principle of offerings (and to some extent the principle of generosity) fits into the wider principle of the Buddhist social structure, of having an independent group of individuals (the monastic sangha) within a wider society. These individuals gain their independence by not seeking benefits from society and not being directly involved in other social institutions. They have their own way of life based on spiritual freedom. They support society by transmitting the Dhamma, without seeking recompense for their work. They live on offerings by members of the wider society, who give out of devotion to the Dhamma in order to preserve the teachings and purify themselves of unwholesome qualities like greed. Offering this support has minimal financial impact on the supporters’ lives.

The recipients (the monastic sangha) are like bees who collect pollen from various flowers to make honey and build their hives, without damaging even the fragrance or complexion of the flowers.24 Indeed, they fertilize the flowers. Because they depend on others to live, they have an obligation to act for the welfare and happiness of all. Although their life depends on others it does not depend on anyone in particular; they rely on the public and in a sense belong to the public, but are subject to no single individual.

In a well-organized society no one should be destitute and forced to beg.25 In such a society religious mendicants live on the offerings of others but the receiving of alms has no resemblance to begging. This system of an independent community that is devoted to spiritual values and provides a necessary balance to the wider society is unique among social systems in the world.

There are generally two ways to categorize dakkhiṇeyya-puggala or ariya-puggala: into the eight levels of eradicating defilements (the eight levels of path and fruit mentioned above), and into the seven qualities or practices that enable the attainment of those eight levels. (The first of these classifications is presented below; the second classification is presented in a following section.)26 {408}

Eight Noble Beings

This division is associated with the ten ’fetters’ (saṁyojana), which are abandoned at different levels of awakening, and with the development of the threefold training (sikkhā) of moral conduct, concentration, and wisdom. The ten fetters are those defilements that bind beings to suffering in the round of rebirth, similar to yokes that bind an animal to a wagon:27

  • A. Five lower fetters (orambhāgiya-saṁyojana):

    • 1. Sakkāya-diṭṭhi: self-view; the firm belief in a ’self’; the inability to see that beings are simply a collection of assorted aggregates. This view creates a coarse form of selfishness, as well as conflict and suffering.

      The stock definition is: One regards material form as self, or self as possessed of material form, or material form as in self, or self as in material form. One regards feeling as self…. One regards perception as self…. One regards volitional formations as self…. One regards consciousness as self … or self as in consciousness.28

    • 2. Vicikicchā: doubt; hesitation; distrust. Doubts, for example, regarding the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sangha, the training, the direction of one’s life, and Dependent Origination. This doubt generates a lack of confidence, courage, and discernment in walking the Noble Path.

    • 3. Sīlabbata-parāmāsa: attachment to moral precepts and religious practices. Attachment to form and ceremony. The mistaken understanding that one will be purified and liberated merely by the act of keeping moral precepts, rules, traditions, and practices. The belief that these rules and practices are sacred in themselves. One follows them with the desire for reward or acquisition. Missing the true purpose of moral precepts and religious observances, one ends up astray or in an extreme form of practice (say of practising extreme asceticism – tapa), not on the Noble Path.29

    • 4. Kāma-rāga: sensual lust; desire for pleasurable sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and tactile objects.

    • 5. Paṭigha: animosity; irritation; indignation.

  • B. Five higher fetters (uddhambhāgiya-saṁyojana):

    • 6. Rūpa-rāga: attachment to fine-material form, e.g. attachment to the four jhānas of the fine-material sphere; delighting in the bliss and peace of these jhānas; desiring the fine-material sphere (rūpa-bhava).

    • 7. Arūpa-rāga: attachment to immateriality, e.g. attachment to the four immaterial jhānas; desire for the formless sphere (arūpa-bhava).

    • 8. Māna: conceit; the view of oneself as superior, equal, or inferior to others.

    • 9. Uddhacca: restlessness; mental disturbance; agitation.

    • 10. Avijjā: ignorance; not knowing the truth; not knowing the law of cause and effect; not knowing the Four Noble Truths. {409}

The eight dakkhiṇeyya-puggala or ariya-puggala can be classified into four types or stages, which are related to the fetters in the following way:30

  • A. Sekha (’learners’) or sa-upādisesa-puggala (’those who still have grasping’):

    • 1. Sotāpanna: ’stream-enterers’; those who walk the noble path truly and correctly.31 They have perfect moral conduct and an adequate level of concentration and wisdom. They have abandoned the first three fetters of sakkāya-diṭṭhi, vicikicchā and sīlabbata-parāmāsa.32

    • 2. Sakadāgāmī: ’once-returners’; those who will return to this world one more time and eliminate all suffering. They have perfect moral conduct and an adequate level of concentration and wisdom. Apart from abandoning the first three fetters, they have attenuated greed, hatred and delusion to a greater degree than stream-enterers.33

    • 3. Anāgāmī: ’non-returners’; they reach final enlightenment from the realm where they appear after death – they do not return to this world. They have perfect moral conduct and concentration, and an adequate level of wisdom. They have abandoned two more fetters, of kāma-rāga and paṭigha, thus abandoning the first five fetters.

  • B. Asekha (’those who have finished training’) or anupādisesa-puggala (’those with no grasping’):

    • 4. Arahant: ’worthy ones’; those worthy of offerings and respect; those who have broken the spokes of the wheel of saṁsāra; those free from mental taints (āsava). They have perfect moral conduct, concentration and wisdom. They have abandoned the remaining five fetters, thus abandoning all ten fetters.

Sekha, translated as ’learners’ or ’trainees’, must apply themselves to sever the fetters and realize the gradual stages up to arahantship. Asekha, the arahants, are adepts; they have gone beyond training. They have finished their spiritual work and eradicated all defilements. They have reached the greatest good; there is no higher spiritual realization for which to strive.

Sa-upādisesa-puggala are equivalent to the first three dakkhiṇeyya-puggala above. They still have upādi (’fuel’), that is, they still have upādāna (’grasping’) – they still have mental impurities. Anupādisesa-puggala, the arahants, are free from grasping and impurity. Note that upādi here is translated as synonymous with upādāna (’grasping’).34 This differs from the upādi in sa-upādisesa-nibbāna and anupādisesa-nibbāna, which translates as ’that which is grasped’, i.e. the five aggregates. {410} The equating of upādi with upādāna corresponds with the Buddha’s teachings on essential spiritual factors, for example the Four Foundations of Mindfulness (sati-paṭṭhāna), the Four Ways of Success (iddhi-pāda), and the Five Faculties (indriya), which often end with the encouragement that one can expect one of two results from cultivating these factors: either arahantship in this very life, or if there is a residue of clinging, the state of non-returning.35 The term upādi in these contexts refers to upādāna or generally to mental defilement (kilesa).

The eight noble beings are precisely these four ariya-puggala described above, but each level of awakening is subdivided as a pair:36

  1. Stream-enterer (one who has realized the fruit of stream-entry).

  2. One practising to realize stream-entry.

  3. Once-returner (one who has realized the fruit of once-returning).

  4. One practising to realize once-returning.

  5. Non-returner (one who has realized the fruit of non-returning).

  6. One practising to realize non-returning.

  7. Arahant (one who has realized the fruit of arahantship).

  8. One practising to realize arahantship. (See Note Translations of Pairs)

Translations of Pairs

These days one finds the translation of these pairs as ’fruition of stream-entry’ (sotāpatti-phala), ’path of stream-entry’ (sotāpatti-magga), ’fruition of once-returning’ (sakadāgāmi-phala), ’path of once-returning’ (sakadāgāmi-magga), etc. This translation follows commentarial terminology: for maggaṭṭha and phalaṭṭha see Nd1A. II. 254; Nd2A. 15; KhA. 183; DhA. I. 334; VinṬ.: Pārājikakaṇḍaṃ, Bhikkhupadabhājanīyavaṇṇanā; DA. II. 515 = AA. IV. 3 = PañcA. 191; MA. II. 120; UdA. 306. The terms sotāpatti-magga, sakadāgāmi-magga and anāgāmi-magga do not appear in the older texts of the Tipiṭaka; they first appear in the Niddesa, Paṭisambhidāmagga and the Abhidhamma. In the older texts, the term arahatta-magga is only found in the passages: arahā vā assasi arahattamaggaṁ vā samāpanno and arahanto vā arahattamaggaṁ vā samāpannā: Vin. I. 32, 39; D. I. 144; S. I. 78; A. II. 42; A. III. 391; Ud. 7, 65. In later texts, e.g. the Niddesa, Paṭisambhidāmagga and the Abhidhamma, it is extensively used.

These four pairs of noble beings are known as the sāvaka-saṅgha, the disciples of the Buddha who are considered exemplary human beings and comprise one of the three ’jewels’ (ratana) in Buddhism. The chant in praise of the Sangha includes: ’The four pairs, the eight kinds of noble beings; these are the Blessed One’s disciples’ (yadidaṁ cattāri purisayugāni aṭṭha purisapuggalā esa bhagavato sāvaka-saṅgho).37

In the scriptures, these disciples of the Buddha are later referred to as the ’noble sangha’ (ariya-saṅgha). In the older texts, the term ariya-saṅgha is used only once as a synonym for sāvaka-saṅgha, in a verse of the Aṅguttara-Nikāya.38 In the commentaries it is used frequently, especially in the Visuddhimagga.39 When the term ariya-saṅgha gained popularity over sāvaka-saṅgha, the term sammati-saṅgha was used to refer to the bhikkhu-saṅgha. Sammati-saṅgha means the agreed-upon or authorized sangha, referring to any gathering of more than three bhikkhus. These terms are often paired: sāvaka-saṅgha with bhikkhu-saṅgha, and ariya-saṅgha with sammati-saṅgha. In any case the terms ariya-saṅgha and sammati-saṅgha do not contradict the older terms and offer a valuable perspective on the meaning of the word ’sangha’. {411}

Eight Noble Beings image

Attributes of an Arahant

{343} The teaching of Buddhism is practical and emphasizes things that lead to insight and wellbeing.40 Buddhism does not encourage conceptualizing and debating over things that should be realised through practical application, unless it is necessary for basic understanding. In relation to the study of Nibbāna, rather than discussing the state of Nibbāna directly, it may be of more value to study those persons who have realized Nibbāna, as well as the benefits of realization apparent in the life and character of such persons.41

We can gain some insight into the nature of arahants by looking at the epithets used for them in the scriptures. Here is a selection of these epithets, which express appreciation for their virtue, purity, excellence, and degree of spiritual attainment:

  • Anuppatta-sadattha: one who has attained wellbeing.

  • Arahant: ’worthy one’; a person far from mental defilement.

  • Asekha: one who has finished training; a person not requiring training; a person possessing the qualities of an adept (asekha-dhamma).

  • Kata-karaṇīya: a person who has done what had to be done.

  • Khīṇāsava: a person free from mental taints (āsava).

  • Mahāpurisa: a person great in virtue; one who acts for the welfare of the manyfolk; one who has self-mastery.

  • Ohitabhāra: one who has laid down the burden.

  • Parama-kusala: a person possessing superior wholesome qualities.

  • Parikkhīṇa-bhava-saṁyojana: one who has destroyed the fetters (saṁyojana), which bind people to existence.

  • Sammadaññā-vimutta: a person released through consummate knowledge.

  • Sampanna-kusala: a person perfected in wholesomeness.

  • Uttama-purisa: a supreme person; a most excellent person.

  • Vusitavant or vusita brahmacariya: a person who has fulfilled the holy life. {344}

Many other terms were originally used by other religious traditions, but their meaning was altered to accord with the essential principles of Dhammavinaya, for example:

  • Ariya (or ariya-puggala): a noble person; an excellent person; a person who has developed non-violence towards all beings. Originally, this term referred to members of the first three castes or to those who are ’noble’ (Aryan) by birth.

  • Brāhmaṇa: a ’true brahmin’; a person who has passed beyond evil by abandoning all unwholesome qualities. Originally, this term referred to members of the highest caste.

  • Dakkhiṇeyya: one worthy of offerings. Originally, this term referred to those brahmins who were worthy of a reward for conducting sacrifices.

  • Kevalī or kebalī: a ’whole’ person; a ’complete’ person. Originally, this term referred to the highest individual in the Jain religion.

  • Nahātaka: one who has been ’ceremoniously bathed’; one who has ’bathed in the Dhamma’; one who has purified his or her volitional actions (kamma); one who is a refuge for all beings. Originally, this term referred to a brahmin who passed through a ritual of bathing and was elevated in status.

  • Samaṇa: a tranquil person; one who has quelled the defilements. Originally, this term referred to renunciants in general.

  • Vedagū: a person who has arrived at knowledge; one who is well-versed in knowledge and who is released from attachment to feeling (vedanā). Originally, this term referred to a brahmin who had finished studying the three Vedas.42

To understand the nature of an arahant it is necessary to consider the epithets in the context of the teachings in which they are mentioned, for example: the Three Taints (āsava), the Three Trainings (sikkhā), the Ten Qualities of an Adept (asekha-dhamma), the Ten Fetters (saṁyojana), and the holy life (brahmacariya) as the Eightfold Path.

Many Buddhists tend to describe the attributes of an arahant and of other awakened beings from a perspective of negation, by determining those defilements that have been abandoned or dispelled. For example, a stream-enterer has eliminated the first three fetters (saṁyojana); a once-returner has eliminated these three fetters and further attenuated greed, hatred, and delusion; a non-returner has eliminated the first five fetters; and an arahant has eliminated all ten fetters. Alternatively, they define an arahant briefly as ’one who is without greed, hatred and delusion’ or ’one who is free from defilement’. Such definitions are useful in that they are clear and provide simple standards of evaluation. But they are limited; they do not clearly demonstrate the exceptional characteristics and prominent features of awakened beings, nor do they describe how such beings live virtuous lives and benefit the world at large.

In fact, there are many terms and passages describing the characteristics of an arahant in affirmative ways. Many descriptions or explanations of arahants, however, cover a wide range of subject material, making it difficult to summarize the positive attributes in a clearly defined, well-ordered way. Otherwise, they recount specific incidents and individuals, but do not describe attributes common to all arahants.

An important term in this context is bhāvitatta, which is literally translated as ’one who has developed himself’ or ’one who is self-developed’.43 This term is used for all arahants: the Buddha, the Silent Buddhas (pacceka-buddhā), and all arahant disciples of the Buddha. For example, in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, while the Buddha is travelling to the place of his final passing away, he is referred to as the ’Developed One’. {345}

Surrounded by and amidst the group of monks, the Buddha travelled to the river Kakutthā,44 and bathed in and drank from its clear, bright, clean waters…. He travelled to the Mango Grove and said to the bhikkhu Cundaka: ’Lay out an outer robe folded into four layers for me to lie upon.’ And thus prompted by the great Adept (bhāvitatta), Cundaka quickly laid out an outer robe folded into four layers.

D. II. 135.

A similar expression is found in the question by the brahmin student Mettagū:

Blessed One, I wish to make an inquiry. Please tell me the meaning; I will thus consider the venerable sir to be a master of knowledge (vedagū), a fully developed one (bhāvitatta). From where does all this abundant and diverse suffering in the world come?

Sn. 202, in the ’sixteen questions’ – soḷasa-pañhā.

The Buddha compared a ’fully developed one’ – an arahant who is well-versed in the Dhamma (bahussuta) – to a clever ship captain, who is able to guide many people across the seas and reach their destination in safety, as is illustrated in the Nāvā Sutta:

Just as one who boards a sturdy boat, fully equipped with oars and barge-pole, who is experienced and skilful, knowing the methods of helmsmanship, is able to assist many others to cross over the waters, so too, one who is a master of knowledge (vedagū), a fully developed one (bhāvitatta), a highly learned one (bahussuta), stable and unshaken by worldly things, endowed with wisdom, is able to help those who are prepared to listen, in order to investigate the Dhamma and to reach fulfilment.

Sn. 56.

The Loka Sutta is similar to the previous sutta, but covers a broader subject matter, as is evident from the following passage:

Monks, these three kinds of persons appearing in the world, appear for the benefit of many, for the happiness of many, for the compassionate assistance of the world – for the welfare, the benefit, and the happiness of devas and human beings. Which three?

Here, the Tathāgata appears in the world. He is the Noble One, the Fully Enlightened One, perfect in conduct and understanding, the Accomplished One, the Knower of the worlds, the Peerless Trainer of those to be trained, Teacher of gods and humans, the Awakened One, Bestower of the Dhamma. He teaches the Dhamma, beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle, beautiful in the end; he reveals the holy life of complete purity, both in spirit and in letter. Monks, this first kind of person, when appearing in the world, appears for the benefit of many, for the happiness of many, for the compassionate assistance of the world – for the welfare, the benefit, and the happiness of devas and human beings. {346}

Furthermore, there is a disciple of that same Teacher who is an arahant, one whose mind is free from the taints … liberated as a consequence of thorough knowledge. That disciple teaches the Dhamma, beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle, beautiful in the end; he reveals the holy life of complete purity, both in spirit and in letter. Monks, this is the second kind of person, when appearing in the world, who appears for the benefit of many, for the happiness of many, for the compassionate assistance of the world – for the welfare, the benefit, and the happiness of devas and human beings.

Furthermore, there is a disciple of that same Teacher who is still in training, still practising, erudite, engaged in virtuous conduct and practices (sīla-vata). That disciple also teaches the Dhamma, beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle, beautiful in the end; he reveals the holy life of complete purity, both in spirit and in letter. Monks, this is the third kind of person, who when appearing in the world, appears for the benefit of many, for the happiness of many, for the compassionate assistance of the world – for the welfare, the benefit, and the happiness of devas and human beings.

The Teacher, the Supreme Seeker, is first in the world;
Following him, the disciple, adept (bhāvitatta);
And then the disciple in training (sekha-sāvaka), still practising,
erudite, engaged in virtuous conduct and practices.
These three kinds of people are supreme
among devas and human beings.
They radiate light, proclaim the truth,
open the door to the Deathless,
And help to liberate the manyfolk from bondage.
Those who follow the noble Path,
well-taught by the Teacher, the unsurpassed Leader –
If they heed the teachings of the Well-Farer –
Will put an end to suffering in this very life.45

It. 78-9. Bahujanahita Sutta

Note, however, that this term bhāvitatta is most often used in poetic verses, rather than in prose. This is most likely because it is concise and can be used easily in verse as a replacement for longer, more drawn-out terms and phrases. Another reason why this short term bhāvitatta tends not to be used in prose is because its meaning is not clearly defined. As there are not the same limitations in prose as there are in poetic composition, longer terms and phrases can be used for the sake of clarity.

At this point it is useful to ask what terms and phrases are used in prose instead of the term bhāvitatta. To answer this question let us look at an explanation found in the Tipiṭaka. The thirtieth volume of the Tipiṭaka – the Cūḷaniddesa – which is considered to be a collection of teachings by the ’commander’ and chief disciple Ven. Sāriputta, elucidates some of the Buddha’s suttas contained in the Suttanipāta. One passage in the Cūḷaniddesa explains the term bhāvitatta as it appears in the question by the brahmin student Mettagū, cited above: {347}

How is the Blessed One an Adept (bhāvitatta)? Here, the Blessed One has developed the body (bhāvita-kāya), developed moral conduct (bhāvita-sīla), developed the mind (bhāvita-citta), developed wisdom (bhāvita-paññā).

(He has developed the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four paths to success, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, the Eightfold Path. He has abandoned the defilements, penetrated the unshakeable truth, realized cessation.)46

Kathaṃ bhagavā bhāvitatto bhagavā bhāvitakāyo bhāvitasīlo bhāvitacitto bhāvitapañño (bhāvitasatipaṭṭhāno bhāvitasammappadhāno bhāvitaiddhipādo bhāvitindriyo bhāvitabalo bhāvitabojjaṅgo bhāvitamaggo pahīnakileso paṭividdhākuppo sacchikatanirodho.)

Nd. II. 14.

Now let us look at a prose passage by the Buddha describing the four areas of self-mastery (bhāvita), which are considered an expansion on the concept of an ’adept’ (bhāvitatta):

Monks, there are these five future dangers as yet unarisen that will arise in the future. You should recognize them and make an effort to prevent them. What five?

In the future there will be monks who are undeveloped in body, morality, mind, and wisdom. Despite being undeveloped in body, morality, mind, and wisdom, they will give full ordination to others but will not be able to guide them in higher virtuous conduct (adhisīla), higher mind (adhicitta), and higher wisdom (adhipaññā).47 These ordainees too will be undeveloped in body, morality, mind, and wisdom. They in turn will give full ordination to others but will not be able to guide them in higher virtuous conduct, higher mind, and higher wisdom. These ordainees too will be undeveloped in body, morality, mind, and wisdom. Thus, monks, through corruption of the Dhamma comes corruption of the discipline, and from corruption of the discipline comes corruption of the Dhamma. This is the first future danger as yet unarisen that will arise in the future. You should recognize it and make an effort to prevent it.

Again, in the future there will be monks who are undeveloped in body, morality, mind, and wisdom. Despite being undeveloped in body, morality, mind, and wisdom, they will give dependence48 to others but will not be able to guide them in higher virtuous conduct, higher mind, and higher wisdom. These pupils too will be undeveloped in body, morality, mind, and wisdom. {348} They in turn will give dependence to others but will not be able to guide them in higher virtuous conduct, higher mind, and higher wisdom. These pupils too will be undeveloped in body, morality, mind, and wisdom. Thus, monks, through corruption of the Dhamma comes corruption of the discipline, and from corruption of the discipline comes corruption of the Dhamma. This is the second future danger as yet unarisen that will arise in the future. You should recognize it and make an effort to prevent it.

A. III. 105-106.

This aforementioned teaching by the Buddha is connected to some essential Dhamma principles:

Bhāvitatta49 is a ’word of praise’ (guṇa-pada), a term describing the virtue or superior quality of the Buddha and the arahants, as those who have developed themselves and completed their spiritual training. When one expands on the meaning of this term into the fourfold mastery of physical development (bhāvita-kāya), moral development (bhāvita-sīla), mental development (bhāvita-citta), and wisdom development (bhāvita-paññā), this pertains to the teaching on the four kinds of cultivation (bhāvanā): cultivation of the body (kāya-bhāvanā), virtuous conduct (sīla-bhāvanā), the mind (citta-bhāvanā), and wisdom (paññā-bhāvanā).

Here, one needs to know some fundamentals of the Pali language. The term bhāvita is used either as an adjective or an adverb, describing the qualities of an individual. The term bhāvanā, on the other hand, is a noun, describing an action, a principle, or a form of practice. There is a compatibility between these terms in that bhāvita refers to someone who has fully engaged in bhāvanā. Therefore, one who is developed in body (bhāvita-kāya) has engaged in physical cultivation (kāya-bhāvanā), one who is developed in virtuous conduct (bhāvita-sīla) has engaged in moral cultivation (sīla-bhāvanā), one who is developed in mind (bhāvita-citta) has engaged in mental cultivation (citta-bhāvanā), and one who is developed in wisdom (bhāvita-paññā) has engaged in wisdom cultivation (paññā-bhāvanā).

This is equivalent to saying that an arahant is one who has completed the fourfold cultivation: he or she is accomplished in physical cultivation, moral cultivation, mental cultivation, and wisdom cultivation.

To clarify this matter, here is a brief description of the four kinds of cultivation (bhāvanā):

  1. Physical cultivation (kāya-bhāvanā): physical development; to develop one’s relationship to surrounding material things (including technology) or to the body itself. In particular, to cognize things by way of the five faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body) skilfully, by relating to them in a way that is beneficial, does not cause harm, increases wholesome qualities, and dispels unwholesome qualities.

  2. Moral cultivation (sīla-bhāvanā): development of virtuous conduct; to develop one’s behaviour and one’s social relationships, by keeping to a moral code, by not abusing or injuring others or causing conflict, and by living in harmony with others and supporting one another. {349}

  3. Mental cultivation (citta-bhāvanā): to develop the mind; to strengthen and stabilize the mind; to cultivate wholesome qualities, like lovingkindness, compassion, enthusiasm, diligence, and patience; to make the mind concentrated, bright, joyous, and clear.

  4. Wisdom cultivation (paññā-bhāvanā): to develop and increase wisdom until there arises a comprehensive understanding of truth, by knowing things as they are and by gaining a clear insight into the world and into phenomena. At this stage one is able to free the mind, purify oneself from mental defilement, and be liberated from suffering. One lives, acts, and solves problems with penetrative awareness.

When one understands the meaning of bhāvanā (’cultivation’), which lies at the heart of the aforementioned ways of practice, one also understands the term bhāvita (’adept’), which is an attribute of those who have completed their spiritual practice and fulfilled the fours kinds of cultivation:

  1. Physical mastery (bhāvita-kāya): this refers to those who have developed the body, that is, they have developed a relationship to their physical environment and to their physical bodies; they have a healthy, contented, and respectful relationship to things and to nature; in particular, they experience things by way of the five senses, say by seeing or hearing, mindfully and in a way that fosters wisdom. They consume things with moderation, deriving their true benefit and value. They are not obsessed or led astray by the influence of preferences and aversions. They are not heedless; rather than allowing sense stimuli to cause harm, they use them for benefit; rather than being dominated by unwholesome states of mind, these individuals nurture wholesome states.

  2. Moral mastery (bhāvita-sīla): this refers to those who have developed virtuous conduct and developed their behaviour. They act virtuously in regard to society, by keeping to a moral code and living harmoniously with others. They do not use physical actions, speech, or their livelihood to oppress others or to create conflict, but instead they use these activities for self-development, for assisting others, and for building a healthy society.

  3. Mental mastery (bhāvita-citta): this refers to those who have developed their minds. As a result, their minds are lucid, bright, spacious, joyous and happy. Their minds are full of virtuous qualities, like goodwill, compassion, confidence, gratitude, generosity, perseverance, fortitude, patient endurance, tranquillity, stability, mindfulness, and concentration.

  4. Wisdom mastery (bhāvita-paññā): this refers to those who have trained in and developed wisdom, resulting in an understanding of the truth and a clear discernment of things according to how they really are. They apply wisdom to solve problems, to dispel suffering, and to purify themselves from mental impurities. Their hearts are liberated and free from affliction.

A noteworthy passage in this sutta is where the Buddha states that those monks who have failed to fully develop their body, virtuous conduct, mind, and wisdom, will become preceptors and teachers, but will be unable to guide their pupils in higher virtue, higher mind, and higher wisdom (i.e. in moral conduct – sīla, concentration – samādhi, and wisdom – paññā).

It is interesting that, when describing the qualities of a teacher, the Buddha mentions the four kinds of self-mastery (bhāvita), but when he describes the subject of study – the teaching or the principles of practice – he mentions the threefold training, of moral conduct, concentration, and wisdom. (In full, these are referred to as the ’training in higher virtue’ – adhisīla-sikkhā, the ’training in higher mind’ – adhicitta-sikkhā, and the ’training in higher wisdom’ – adhipaññā-sikkhā.)

This distinction may raise several doubts. First, why doesn’t the Buddha use complementary or corresponding terms here? Wouldn’t it have made more sense for him to say that one who is not fully developed (bhāvita) in the four ways is unable to guide someone else in the fourfold cultivation (bhāvanā), or conversely, one who has not completed the threefold training is unable to guide someone else in moral conduct, concentration, and wisdom? {350}

Moreover, the factors in these teachings are nearly identical. The dual teaching on cultivation (bhāvanā) and self-mastery (bhāvita) contains the four factors of body, virtuous conduct, mind, and wisdom. The Threefold Training, on the other hand, contains the factors of virtuous conduct, concentration (i.e. ’mind’ – citta), and wisdom. Therefore, wouldn’t it have been less confusing if the Buddha had stuck to one or the other of these two teachings, rather than combine them?

Many Buddhists are familiar with the sequence of practice of sīla, samādhi, and paññā, and this threefold practice is considered to be complete in itself. They are generally unfamiliar, however, with this extra factor of ’body’ (kāya), and may wonder why it is added and what it means.

Here, let us simply conclude that the Buddha presented these two distinct teachings in the same context: in reference to the attributes of a teacher he mentioned the fourfold self-mastery (bhāvita), while in reference to the subject of teaching he mentioned the threefold training (sikkhā).

A simple, short answer for why the Buddha used these two distinct teachings in the same context is that they have different objectives or goals. The teaching on the attributes of a teacher aims to describe the discernible characteristics of a teacher, in the manner of evaluating whether someone has completed spiritual training and is ready to teach others. The teaching on the subject of study on the other hand aims to describe the content and system of practice – to describe what and how to train in order to obtain desirable results.

Most importantly, a true study or training entails a natural process of developing one’s life; this process accords with laws of nature and therefore the system of training must be established correctly in harmony with causes and conditions found in nature.

Let us first examine the subject of study, i.e. the threefold training. Why is this training composed of only three factors? Again, one can answer this simply by saying that this training pertains to the life of human beings which has three facets or three spheres of activity. These three factors combine to make up a person’s life, and they proceed and are developed in unison.

These three factors are as follows:

  1. Communication and interaction with the world: perceptions, relationships, association, behaviour, and responses vis-à-vis other people and external objects by way of the dvāra – the doorways or channels – which can be described in two ways:

    1. Doorways of cognition (phassa-dvāra): the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body (combined with the meeting point of the mind, these comprise six doorways).50

    2. Doorways of volitional action (kamma-dvāra): body and speech (combined with the meeting point of the mind, these comprise three doorways).

    This factor can be simply called ’interaction with the world’ and represented by the word sīla (’conduct’).

  2. The mind: the activity of the mind, which has numerous attendant factors and properties. To begin with, one must have intention, also referred to as volition, deliberation, determination, or motivation. Moreover, people’s minds usually contain positive and negative qualities, strengths and weaknesses. The mind experiences feelings of pleasure and discomfort, ease and dis-ease, and feelings of indifference and complacency. There are reactions to these sensations, like pleasure and aversion, and desires to acquire, obtain, flee, or get rid of, which influence how one experiences things and how one acts, for example whether one looks at something or not, what one chooses to say, and to whom one speaks. This factor is simply called the ’mind’ (citta) or the domain of concentration (samādhi). {351}

  3. Wisdom: knowledge and understanding, beginning with suta – knowledge acquired through formal education or by way of the news media – up to and including all forms of development in the domain of thought (cintā-visaya) and the domain of knowledge (ñāṇa-visaya), including: ideas, views, beliefs, attitudes, values, attachments to various ideas and forms of understanding, and specific perspectives and points of view. This factor is called ’wisdom’ (paññā).

These three factors operate in unison; they are interconnected and interdependent. A person’s interaction with the world by way of the sense faculties – by way of the doorways of cognition – and through physical and verbal behaviour (factor #1) is dependent on intention, feelings, and various other conditions in the mind (factor #2). And this entire process is dependent on the guidance by wisdom and intelligence (factor #3). The extent of one’s knowledge determines the range of one’s thoughts and actions.

Similarly, the mental factors of say determination and desire (factor #2) rely on an interaction by way of the sense faculties and physical and verbal behaviour (factor #1) in order to be fulfilled and satisfied. And this process is determined and regulated by one’s beliefs, thoughts, and understanding (factor #3), which are subject to change and adjustment.

Again, the operation and development of wisdom (factor #3) depends on the sense faculties, say of seeing or hearing, depends on the movement of the body, say of walking, organizing, seeking, seizing, etc., and applies speech to communicate and inquire (factor #1). And this process relies on mental properties, for example: interest, desire, fortitude, perseverance, circumspection, mindfulness, tranquillity, and concentration (factor #2).

The nature of human life is comprised of these three interrelated, interdependent factors. They comprise an integrated whole, which cannot be added to or subtracted from. As life is comprised of these three factors, any training designed to help people to live their lives well must address the development of these three areas of life.

Spiritual training is thus divided into three sections, known as the threefold training. This training is designed to develop these three areas of life to be complete and in harmony with nature. These three factors are developed simultaneously and in unison, resulting in an integrated system of practice.

From a rough perspective one may see these three factors in a similar way as to how they are sometimes outlined in the scriptures, of representing three major stages in practice, of moral conduct, concentration, and wisdom. This perspective gives the appearance that one practices these factors as distinct steps and in an ordered sequence, that is, after training in moral conduct one develops concentration, which is then followed by wisdom development.

By viewing the threefold training in this way one sees a system of practice in which three factors are prominent at different stages, beginning with a coarse factor and leading to more refined factors as one progresses through the stages:

  • The first stage (moral conduct) gives prominence to the relationship to one’s external environment, to the sense faculties, and to physical actions and speech.

  • The second stage (concentration) gives prominence to a person’s inner life, to the mind.

  • The third stage (wisdom) gives prominence to knowledge and understanding.

Note, however, that at each stage the other two remaining factors always function and participate. {352}

This perspective provides an overview, in which one focuses on the chief activity at each stage of the process. One gives prominence to each of the three factors respectively, so that coarser factors are ready to support the growth and promote success of more refined factors.

Take for example the task of cutting down a large tree. First, one must prepare the surrounding area so that one is able to move about easily, safely, and securely (= sīla). Second, one must prepare one’s strength, courage, mindfulness, resolve, non-distractedness, and skill in handling an axe (= samādhi). Third, one must have a proper tool, like a good quality sharpened axe of the correct size (= paññā). If one fulfils these three requirements one succeeds in cutting down the tree.

In regard to one’s regular, daily life, however, a closer analysis reveals that these three factors are constantly functioning in an interrelated, interdependent way. Therefore, in order for people to truly engage in effective spiritual practice, one should encourage them to be aware of these three factors. They should develop these factors in unison, by including skilful reflection (yoniso-manasikāra), which helps to increase understanding, and mindfulness (sati), which helps to bring about true success.

In terms of one’s spiritual practice, no matter what activity one is involved in, one is able to inspect and train oneself according to the principles of the threefold training. One thus aims to engage in all three of these factors – virtuous conduct, concentration, and wisdom – simultaneously and in all situations. When involved in an activity, one considers whether one’s actions result in the affliction or distress of others, whether they cause harm, or whether they are conducive to assistance, support, encouragement, and development of others (= sīla). During such activities, what is the state of one’s mind? Is one acting out of selfishness, malice, greed, hatred, or delusion, or is one acting say with kindness, well-wishing, faith, mindfulness, effort, and a sense of responsibility? While engaged in an activity, is the mind agitated, anxious, confused, and depressed, or is it calm, happy, joyous, content, and bright? (= samādhi). When engaged in an activity, does one act with clear understanding? Does one discern its purpose, objective and related principles? Does one recognize its potential benefits and drawbacks, and fully understand the way to adjust and improve the activity? (= paññā).

In this way skilled persons are able to train and inspect themselves, and evaluate their practice, at all times and in all situations. They cultivate all three factors of the threefold training in a single activity.

Meanwhile, the development of the threefold training from the perspective of three distinct stages unfolds automatically. From one perspective a person develops the threefold training in an ordered sequence. But from another perspective the simultaneous, unified practice of these three factors is taking place and assisting in the successful advancement of the so-called ’three-stage’ training.

In this context, someone who delves deeply into the details of spiritual practice will know that at the moment of awakening – at the moment of realizing Path, Fruit, and Nibbāna – all eight factors of the Noble Path, which are classified into the three groups of sīla, samādhi, and paññā, are completed and operate as one, acting to eliminate the defilements and to bring about fulfilment. {353}

To sum up, the system of Buddhist spiritual training – the threefold training (tisso sikkhā) – is based on a relationship between requisite factors and accords with specific laws of nature. Human life is comprised of three factors – of conduct with the outside world (sīla), mental activities (citta), and understanding (paññā) – which act in unison and are interdependent in bringing about spiritual development.

When describing the principles of spiritual practice, the Buddha referred to these three aspects of training (sikkhā). We now arrive back at the question: ’Why did the Buddha adopt a new model of the fourfold self-mastery (bhāvita) when he described the attributes of a teacher?’

As mentioned earlier, this question can be answered easily by saying that these two models have different aims and objectives. The threefold training is to be applied in real life – to be practised in accord with a system in harmony with nature. The four factors of self-mastery are intended for self-examination. Here, one need not be concerned with the order of nature. The emphasis here is on getting a clear picture of one’s personal qualities. If one discerns these clearly, they will by their very nature be connected to the three factors of training.

This is obvious by inspecting the first factor of sīla, which refers to one’s interaction and communication with the world, one’s apprehension of the world, and one’s actions in relation to the world.

As mentioned above, we interact with the world by way of two sets of ’doorways’ (dvāra): the first set entails the doorways of cognition (phassa-dvāra), usually referred to as the sense faculties (indriya) – our awareness of the world by way of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body. The second set entails the doorways of volitional action (kamma-dvāra), through which we act towards and respond to the world (towards people, towards society, and towards other objects in our external environment) by physical and verbal gestures.

Here lies the distinction. In regard to interacting with the world, at any one moment (or to speak at a more refined level, at any one mind-moment) we only communicate with the world through one of the specific doorways, and one can examine this process by applying either of the two sets of doorways.

In respect to the threefold training, in which sīla, samādhi and paññā are part of an integrated system, the interaction with the world by way of any one of the various doorways comprises the training in ’conduct’ (sīla); the factors of the mind (samādhi) and understanding (paññā) constitute distinct factors. The entire interaction with the world through the various doorways – both the doorways of cognition and the doorways of volitional action – is included here in the factor of sīla. For this reason the threefold training is comprised of three factors.

In respect to the attributes of a teacher, one need not consider the integrated functioning of the three factors contained in the threefold training. Here, one is distinguishing between different factors for the purpose of investigation. It is precisely here at the factor of conduct (sīla) where a separation is made, that is, one distinguishes a person’s interaction with the world according to one or the other of the two sets of doorways:

  1. Doorways of cognition (phassa-dvāra; usually referred to as the sense faculties – indriya): the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body (along with the meeting point of the mind, these comprise six doorways); these doorways enable seeing/looking, hearing/listening, smelling, tasting, and tangible contact (culminating at the mind as cognition of mental objects – dhammārammaṇa).

  2. Doorways of volitional action (kamma-dvāra): body and speech (along with the meeting point of the mind, these comprise three doorways); these enable physical actions and speech (and by designating the starting point of volitional action – the mind – this also includes thinking).

The Buddha separated these two subsidiary factors of conduct (sīla), determining them as the first two factors in the fourfold self-mastery (bhāvita). He distinguished the first factor, of interaction with the world by way of the doorways of cognition or the sense faculties, and labeled it as ’mastery of the body’ (bhāvita-kāya). (The term ’body’ – kāya – here refers to the ’collection of five doorways’ – pañcadvārika-kāya). The Buddha thus gave great emphasis to one’s interaction with the world, in particular to cognition by way of the five senses. {354} People tend to overlook this first factor, but in relation to spiritual practice it is considered of paramount importance in Buddhism, especially in regard to measuring a person’s development.

This is particularly relevant to the present era, which is referred to as the Age of Information or the IT Age. The development of people in regard to this factor determines the fork in the road between direct wisdom cultivation and getting bogged down in delusion. This principle of ’physical development’ can be used as a sign warning people from losing their way, and encouraging them to use information technology to advance civilization in a proper direction.

In terms of measuring people’s spiritual development, the second subsidiary factor, of interacting with the world by way of the doorways of volitional action (kamma-dvāra), constitutes ’moral self-mastery’ (bhāvita-sīla), and is equivalent to the second part of the training in higher virtue (adhisīla-sikkhā). ’Mental mastery’ (bhāvita-citta) and ’wisdom mastery’ (bhāvita-paññā) correspond to the training in higher mind (adhicitta-sikkhā) and the training in higher wisdom (adhipaññā-sikkhā), respectively.

Note that this concept of ’physical mastery’ (bhāvita-kāya), which here has been defined as a development of one’s interaction with the world by way of the five sense faculties, is sometimes explained differently, by defining the term kāya literally as the ’body’ or as referring to material objects.

If one expands the meaning of bhāvita-kāya in this alternative way, then the definition of the second factor of ’moral self-mastery’ (bhāvita-sīla) is adjusted accordingly, as follows: ’moral mastery’ refers to the cultivation of one’s relationship to other human beings or to one’s engagement with society, to promoting peaceful coexistence, cooperation, harmony, and mutual support.

These alternative definitions of these two factors are connected to the teaching on fourfold virtuous conduct – on the four kinds of ’pure conduct classified as virtue’ (pārisuddhi-sīla):

  1. Pāṭimokkhasaṁvara-sīla: virtue as restraint in regard to the Pāṭimokkha, the chief disciplinary code of the monastic sangha.

  2. Indriyasaṁvara-sīla: virtue as sense restraint; to receive sense impressions, like sights and sounds, mindfully, in a way conducive to wisdom and true benefit, and not to be dominated by unwholesome mind states.

  3. Ājīvapārisuddhi-sīla: virtue as purity of livelihood: to earn one’s living righteously and in a pure manner.

  4. Paccayapaṭisevana-sīla (or paccayasannissita-sīla): to use the four requisites wisely, benefiting from them by understanding their true purpose and value; to live and consume in moderation; not to consume with craving.

Those aspects pertaining to one’s relationship to the world by way of the body, or to one’s engagement with material objects and with nature, are part of the factor on ’physical mastery’ (bhāvita-kāya). Those aspects pertaining to one’s relationship to society or to one’s community are part of the factor on ’moral mastery’ (bhāvita-sīla).51

Having introduced these principles, the following description of the attributes of arahants corresponds to the teaching on the fourfold self-mastery (bhāvita): being fully developed in body, moral conduct, mind, and wisdom.

Be aware, however, that, although these four kinds of attributes are distinguished from one another, they are not completely separate. Their main features are highlighted for the purpose of understanding, but in the actual process of development they are interconnected and are cultivated in an integrated way. In particular, they are never independent from wisdom. {355}

Physical Self-Mastery (bhāvita-kāya)

Although there are many passages in the Tipiṭaka in which the Buddha mentions the term bhāvita-kāya, there are no explicit explanations of this term, as if the listeners always understood its meaning. There were occasions, however, when non-Buddhists, especially members of the Nigaṇṭhā order, spoke about this subject according to their own understanding, and the Buddha duly responded.

The Mahāsaccaka Sutta, for example, contains an account of such a conversation, in which the terms bhāvita-kāya and bhāvita-citta are discussed:

One morning, the famous Nigaṇṭhā named Saccaka (he was a teacher of the Licchavi princes in Vajjī) travelled to where the Buddha was staying, and engaged him in conversation. He began by speaking about physical cultivation (kāya-bhāvanā) and mental cultivation (citta-bhāvanā). He told the Buddha that according to his opinion the Buddha’s disciples only strive in the area of mental cultivation, but they do not engage in physical cultivation. The commentaries state that the reason Saccaka held this view is that he observed the bhikkhus going off in search of seclusion, but that they did not practise severe austerities.

After he had stated his opinion, the Buddha replied by asking him what, according to his learning, is the meaning of ’physical cultivation’ (kāya-bhāvanā). Saccaka answered by defining it as the practice of severe austerities and self-mortification (atta-kilamathānuyoga).

The Buddha went on to ask him about his understanding of ’mental cultivation’ (citta-bhāvanā), yet Saccaka was unable to provide an explanation. The Buddha continued by saying that Saccaka’s understanding of physical cultivation is incompatible with the cultivation as found in the noble ones’ discipline (ariya-vinaya). Failing to understand the meaning of physical cultivation, how could one possibly understand mental cultivation? He then bid Saccaka to listen to his explanation on what is not physical and mental cultivation, and conversely, what is truly physical and mental cultivation:

How, Aggivessana,52 has one gained mastery in body and mastery in mind? Here, pleasant feeling arises in a well-taught noble disciple. Although touched by that pleasant feeling, he does not lust after pleasure, he does not become one who lusts after pleasant feeling. That pleasant feeling of his ceases. With the cessation of the pleasant feeling, painful feeling arises. Touched by that painful feeling, he does not sorrow, snivel, and lament; he does not weep beating his breast and become distraught.

In this way, Aggivessana, although that pleasant feeling has arisen in him, it does not invade his mind and remain, because the body is developed. And although that painful feeling has arisen in him, it does not invade his mind and remain, because the mind is developed.

Look here, Aggivessana, any noble disciple in whom, in this double manner, arisen pleasant feeling does not invade his mind and remain because the body is developed, and arisen painful feeling does not invade his mind and remain because the mind is developed, has gained mastery in body and in mind.53 {356}

M. I. 237.

As mentioned above, the principal meaning of ’physical cultivation’ (kāya-bhāvanā) is the development of the ’collection of five doorways’ (pañcadvārika-kāya), that is, of the five faculties (indriya): the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body. Therefore, ’physical cultivation’ (kāya-bhāvanā) is essentially identical to the cultivation of the sense faculties (indriya-bhāvanā).

The development of the sense faculties begins with sense restraint (indriya-saṁvara), to which the Buddha gave great emphasis in the training for those who have ’gone forth’ in the Dhammavinaya. Sense restraint is a fundamental practice, linked with the training in virtuous conduct (sīla). (In the commentaries, sense restraint is often classified as a form of virtuous conduct, as ’virtue as sense restraint’ – indriyasaṁvara-sīla.) Let us have a look at this basic principle:

And how, Sire, is a monk called a guardian of the sense doors? Here a monk, on seeing a visible object with the eye, does not grasp at its major signs or secondary characteristics. Because the evil, unwholesome states of covetousness (abhijjhā) and indignation (domanassa) would overwhelm him if he dwelt leaving this eye-faculty unrestrained, so he practises guarding it, he protects the eye-faculty, develops restraint of the eye-faculty. On hearing a sound with the ear … on smelling an odour with the nose … on tasting a flavour with the tongue … on feeling a tangible with the body … on knowing a mind object with the mind, he does not grasp at its major signs or secondary characteristics … he develops restraint of the mind-faculty. That monk endowed with this noble sense restraint experiences within himself pure, unadulterated happiness. In this way, Sire, a monk is a guardian of the sense doors.

D. I. 70.

Sense restraint still belongs to the practice of a ’trainee’, or is a rudimentary stage of practice. It is not a necessary practice for an arahant, who has ’gained mastery over the sense faculties’ (bhāvitindriya, which is classified as part of bhāvita-kāya). It is included in the discussion here, however, to demonstrate the various stages of practice.

There is a more profound form of sense restraint, or another way of explaining this term, as is evident from a discussion the Buddha had with the wanderer Kuṇḍaliya at Añjanavana in Sāketa. (The cultivation of this form of sense restraint fulfils the three kinds of good conduct – sucarita; the cultivation of the three kinds of good conduct fulfils the Four Foundations of Mindfulness; the cultivation of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness fulfils the seven factors of enlightenment; the cultivation of the seven factors of enlightenment fulfils true knowledge and deliverance, the highest blessing):

And how, Kuṇḍaliya, is restraint of the sense faculties developed and cultivated so that it fulfils the three kinds of good conduct? Here, Kuṇḍaliya, having seen an agreeable form with the eye, a monk does not long for it, or become excited by it, or generate lust for it. His body is steady and his mind is steady, inwardly well-composed and well-liberated. Moreover, having seen a disagreeable form with the eye, he is not dismayed by it, not resistant, not afflicted, not resentful. His body is steady and his mind is steady, inwardly well-composed and well-liberated. Further, having heard an agreeable sound with the ear … having smelt an agreeable odour with the nose … having savoured an agreeable taste with the tongue … having felt an agreeable tangible with the body … having cognized an agreeable mental phenomenon with the mind, a monk does not long for it. … his mind is steady, inwardly well-composed and well-liberated. In this way, Kuṇḍaliya, is restraint of the sense faculties developed and cultivated so that it fulfils the three kinds of good conduct.54

S. V. 74.

Now let us examine a higher stage of practice – the cultivation of the sense faculties (indriya-bhāvanā) – which is described in the Indriyabhāvanā Sutta. After describing this form of practice, this sutta also distinguishes between the term sekha-pāṭipada, referring to an awakened person who is still a trainee, and the term bhāvitindriya, referring to an arahant, who has completed his or her spiritual training and is ’fully developed in body’ (bhāvita-kāya): {357}

On one occasion the Buddha was staying at the bamboo grove in Kajaṅgala, and he was visited by Uttara, a disciple of the brahmin Pārāsariya.55 The Buddha asked him whether Pārāsariya taught the cultivation of the sense faculties (indriya-bhāvanā) to his disciples. When Uttara replied that he did, the Buddha asked him in what manner does he teach on developing the sense faculties. Uttara replied that Pārāsariya teaches to avoid having the eye see material forms and having the ear hear sounds. The Buddha answered that following this line of reasoning a blind or deaf person has ’mastered the sense faculties’ (bhāvitindriya).

The Buddha went on to say that the development of the senses as taught by Pārāsariya is different from the supreme cultivation of the senses in the discipline of the noble ones (ariya-vinaya). Ven. Ānanda then asked the Buddha to explain this supreme cultivation of the senses:

1. The cultivation of the sense faculties (indriya-bhāvanā):

Now, Ānanda, how is there the supreme development of the faculties in the noble ones’ discipline? Here, Ānanda, when a bhikkhu sees a form with the eye, there arises in him what is agreeable, there arises what is disagreeable, there arises what is both agreeable and disagreeable. He clearly understands thus: ’There has arisen in me what is agreeable, there has arisen what is disagreeable, there has arisen what is both agreeable and disagreeable. But that is conditioned, gross, dependently arisen. This is peaceful, this is sublime, that is, equanimity.’ The agreeable that arose, the disagreeable that arose, and the both agreeable and disagreeable that arose cease in him and equanimity is well established. Just as a man with good sight, having opened his eyes might shut them or having shut his eyes might open them, so too in a monk, the agreeable that arose, the disagreeable that arose, and the both agreeable and disagreeable that arose ceases and equanimity is established just as quickly, just as rapidly, just as easily. This is called in the noble ones’ discipline the supreme development of the faculties regarding forms cognizable by the eye.

Again, Ānanda, when a monk hears a sound with the ear … smells an odour with the nose … tastes a flavour with the tongue … touches a tangible with the body … cognizes a mind-object with the mind … equanimity is well established. Just as if a man were to let two or three drops of water fall onto an iron frying pan heated for a whole day, the falling of the drops might be slow but they would quickly vaporize and vanish, so too in a monk, the agreeable that arose, the disagreeable that arose, and the both agreeable and disagreeable that arose ceases and equanimity is established just as quickly, just as rapidly, just as easily. This is called in the noble ones’ discipline the supreme development of the faculties regarding mind objects cognizable by the mind.

That is how there is the supreme development of the faculties in the noble ones’ discipline.

2. A) One who is still in training (sekha-pāṭipada):

And how, Ānanda, is one a disciple in higher training, one who is still engaged in practice? Here, Ānanda, when a bhikkhu sees a form with the eye, there arises in him what is agreeable, there arises what is disagreeable, there arises what is both agreeable and disagreeable; he is discomforted, disquieted and disgusted by the agreeable that arose, by the disagreeable that arose, and by the both agreeable and disagreeable that arose. When a monk hears a sound with the ear … smells an odour with the nose … tastes a flavour with the tongue … touches a tangible with the body … cognizes a mind-object with the mind … he is discomforted, disquieted and disgusted by the agreeable that arose, by the disagreeable that arose, and by the both agreeable and disagreeable that arose. {358} That is how one is a disciple in higher training, one who is still engaged in practice.

2. B) One who has completed the training (bhāvitindriya):

And how, Ānanda, is one a noble one with fully developed faculties? Here, Ānanda, when a monk sees a form with the eye, there arises in him what is agreeable, there arises what is disagreeable, there arises what is both agreeable and disagreeable. If he should wish: ’May I abide perceiving the unrepulsive in the repulsive’, he abides perceiving the unrepulsive in the repulsive. If he should wish: ’May I abide perceiving the repulsive in the unrepulsive’, he abides perceiving the repulsive in the unrepulsive. If he should wish: ’May I abide perceiving the unrepulsive in what is both repulsive and unrepulsive’, he abides perceiving the unrepulsive in that. If he should wish: ’May I abide perceiving the repulsive in what is both unrepulsive and repulsive’, he abides perceiving the repulsive in that. If he should wish: ’May I avoiding both the repulsive and unrepulsive, abide in equanimity, mindful and fully aware’, he abides in equanimity towards that, mindful and fully aware.

Again, Ānanda, when a monk hears a sound with the ear … smells an odour with the nose … tastes a flavour with the tongue … touches a tangible with the body … cognizes a mind-object with the mind, there arises in him what is agreeable, there arises what is disagreeable, there arises what is both agreeable and disagreeable…. If he should wish: ’May I avoiding both the repulsive and unrepulsive, abide in equanimity, mindful and fully aware’, he abides in equanimity towards that, mindful and fully aware.

That is how one is a noble one with fully developed faculties.56

M. III. 298 (abridged)

As mentioned earlier, by expanding on their meanings or by changing the focus of investigation, there are alternative definitions for the terms kāya-bhāvanā and bhāvita-kāya. Instead of focusing on the doorways of cognition or on the sense faculties, the focus shifts to the world at large or to external objects which come into contact with the senses – the objects of cognition. One then distinguishes between these various sense objects. By doing this the definition of ’physical development’ becomes the development of one’s relationship to one’s surroundings by way of one’s physical body, or the development of one’s relationship to material things (including other human beings in their capacity as objects of cognition).

One group of objects that people engage with to a great degree is the collection of the four requisites (paccaya): food, clothing, shelter, and medicine. By extension this group also includes all the other material things, consumable objects, tools and appliances used in work, etc., which comprise a large part of our interaction with the outside world. This area of a person’s life requires discipline and training, as one can see from the teaching on moral conduct comprised of a wise use of the four requisites (paccayapaṭisevana-sīla). A wise use of material requisites, like sense restraint, may thus be included in the factor of physical development (kāya-bhāvanā).

In the Dhammavinaya, the relationship to material things that nourish and sustain life is considered an essential part of training. People are able to develop this relationship constantly in everyday life. This form of training is set down from the onset for those individuals ordained as monks and nuns, of reflecting wisely on the use of the four requisites, and by developing a sense of moderation, which leads to contentment and generates true blessings. This stands in contrast to consuming things with only a foggy understanding and seeking to gratify one’s craving: {359}

Cunda, I do not teach you the Dhamma for restraining the taints that arise in the present alone. Nor do I teach the Dhamma merely for preventing taints from arising in the future. Rather, I teach the Dhamma to both restrain present taints and to prevent future taints from arising.

Therefore, Cunda, let the robe I have allowed you be simply for protection from cold, for protection from heat, for protection from contact with the wind and sun, from horseflies, mosquitoes, and creeping things, and only for the purpose of concealing the private parts and protecting your modesty.

Let the almsfood I have allowed you be just enough for the support and sustenance of the body, for avoiding [malnourishment leading to] distress, and for assisting the holy life, considering: ’Thus I shall terminate old feelings without arousing new feelings and I shall be healthy and blameless and shall live in comfort.’

Let the lodging I have allowed you be simply for protection from cold, for protection from heat, for protection from contact with the wind and sun, from horseflies, mosquitoes, and creeping things, and only for the purpose of allaying the perils of climate and for the enjoyment of seclusion.

Let the medicinal requisites that I have allowed you be just for warding off feelings that have arisen resulting from illness, and for the benefit of being free from afflicting disease.57

D. III. 129-30.

Of these four requisites, lodging (senāsana; literally ’place for sitting and lying down’) is highly significant, both as a residence and as a place for storing the other requisites. Most human actions, whether it be the preparation, consumption, or storage of food, or the place for keeping one’s clothes and getting dressed, occur in one’s lodging or abode. In respect to offering gifts, the Buddha said:

Giving food and drink, one gives strength;
Giving clothes, one gives beauty;
Giving a vehicle, one gives ease and comfort;
Giving a lamp, one gives sight.
The one who gives a residence is the giver of all.
But the one who teaches the Dhamma
Is the giver of the Deathless.

S. I. 32.

For the monastic community, the ’residence’ encompasses all buildings, from personal monastic huts (kuṭī) to communal buildings, which comprise individual monasteries, originally referred to by the Buddha as ārāma (’park’, ’grove’). These monasteries developed from forested areas: from woodlands (vana) and royal parks (uyyāna). The first Buddhist monastery, offered by King Bimbisāra to the Buddha, was Veḷuvanaṃ Uyyānaṃ – the ’Bamboo Grove and Royal Park’, and the monastery in which the Buddha spent the most amount of time was Jetavana Royal Park, later called Jetavana Grove.58 {360}

From monasteries in smaller woodlands on the outskirts of towns and villages, or those bordering larger forests, the meaning of monastic residences was expanded to incorporate places deep in the forest (arañña), including caves, steep ravines, and mountains. Eventually the concept of ’residence’ (senāsana) for the monastic community came to encompass the entire range of forests, mountains, and inhabited areas, until it meant one’s entire environment – the whole world.

One’s residence, region of habitation, and entire environment is equivalent to those things in one’s surrounding with which one comes into contact, associates, engages, and relates by way of the five senses. Therefore the world around us is the domain for ’physical development’ (kāya-bhāvanā) – for training the body, for training one’s interaction with the outside world by way of the sense faculties.

A favourable relationship to one’s residence, which is maintained continuously by accomplished practitioners, is evinced by the terms used to describe monastic residences above, and it is connected to a healthy relationship generally in spiritual practice to the world at large. This is evident from the first term used to describe a monastery: ārāma, which can be translated as ’park’, and literally means ’place of delight’.

This term ārāma points to a fundamental aspect of a Dhamma practitioner’s relationship to the world, beginning with a person’s residence (in the case of monks and nuns this refers to a monastery), as being a place inspiring delight (for example, it is in a natural surrounding, with plants and animals). This term reveals the desirable mind state that a monastic or a Dhamma practitioner should maintain in relation to a suitable residence, which can then be extended to any place or region where one lives – making it a place of delight.

This is not all. The term ārāma connects people to their fundamental state of existence and way of practice. It connects us to the domain of sense experience – to the mind. Here, one’s ’abode’ or ’abiding’ is one of delight, which we see revealed in various Dhamma principles, for example: solitude as a place of delight (pavivekārāma); seclusion as a place of delight (paṭisallānārāma); the relinquishment of unwholesome qualities as a delightful abiding (pahānārāma); and the cultivation of wholesome qualities as a delightful abiding (bhāvanārāmā).59

Ārāma here refers to a favourable feeling or attitude towards a suitable object with which one comes into contact. It is as if Dhamma practitioners have a responsibility to make those things they engage with a source of delight, beginning with one’s lodging or residence (which for monks is already called an ārāma), and then extending this feeling outward into their general environment.

In reference to people’s relationship to their abodes and surrounding environment, besides the term ārāma, another term (used probably more often than ārāma) that is often used in the context of the lives of monks, Dhamma practitioners, and arahants is ramaṇīya, translated as ’delightful’, ’refreshing’, ’pleasant’. This term points to an inspiring surrounding atmosphere, which is extremely favourable for practitioners and conducive to the development of wholesome mind states. For arahants, accessing this delightful atmosphere is easy or happens readily, because their contact with the world occurs without any hidden defilements. Moreover, arahants are able to make their surroundings delightful and refreshing, both for themselves and for those who dwell close to them.

The term ramaṇīya appears frequently in the Tipiṭaka, and it is as if this atmosphere of delight or refreshment is a feature of the Tipiṭaka itself. We see it expressed, for example, already in the story of the Buddha’s life before he was awakened, when as a bodhisatta he went in search of a suitable place to practise meditation and finally found such a location at Uruvelā: {361}

’This is a truly delightful (ramaṇīyo vata) piece of ground with sheltered, pleasant groves and a clear-flowing river with smooth banks and nearby a village for alms resort. This will indeed serve for the striving of a clansman intent on striving.’ And I sat down there thinking: ’This will serve for striving.’

M. I. 167.

There are records of the Buddha and his disciples, when they stayed at or passed through various places, especially forests and mountains, describing these places as delightful. Sometimes these descriptions are detailed, like in the case of Ven. Ekavihāriya Thera, who described in verse his place of solitude:

While a refreshing breeze blows,
Laden with the fragrance of flowers,
I’ll burst asunder ignorance
While seated on the mountain top.
In the mountain heights carpeted with flowers,
A region cool and forested,
Gladdened by the joy of release,
I will delight in the great mountain caves.

Thag. verses 544-5.

When Ven. Mahā Kassapa returned from collecting alms and climbed into the mountains, he uttered a long verse praising the beauty of the forested landscape, including these passages:

Garlanded with sacred pear,
Echoing with the trumpet calls of elephants,
These uplifting crags are a place of delight;
These mountains do please me so!
Dark-hued like thunderheads, these marvellous mountains,
With cool, clear streams and covered by meadows,
The colour of gold-dust beetles –
These mountains do please me so!
These myrtle peaks majestic as clouds,
Appearing like palaces;
Resounding with the lovely bellows of tuskers –
These mountains do please me so!

Thag. verses 1062-64.

To sum up, arahants have completely developed their sense faculties (bhāvitindriya). Besides being able to immediately savour a delightful environment, they are able to perceive or relate to an unpleasant physical surrounding as pleasant. They delight in pleasant places without hindrance, and they transform chaotic, troublesome places into an oasis. Those who come into contact with them share in this delight:

Whether in village or in forest,
On hill or in dale,
Wherever arahants dwell –
Delightful, indeed, is that spot.

Dh. verse 98.

The cultivation of the body (kāya-bhāvanā) begins with initial stages of practice and truly reaches fulfilment when practice is complete – when a person realizes the fruit of wisdom cultivation. When practice is complete, the aspect of physical self-mastery (bhāvita-kāya) is conspicuous and easily apparent to others. Having said this, however, there are other similar results of awakening that can potentially be misleading to ordinary people, who have not developed themselves in body, virtue, mind, and wisdom.60 {362}

Moral Self-Mastery (bhāvita-sīla)

Moral conduct (sīla) is a beginning stage of spiritual practice and is perfected at the level of stream-entry (sotāpanna).61 It is impossible for someone who has realized liberation to act immorally (dussīla) or to deliberately cause harm.62 For this reason, there are few scriptural references to the moral conduct of awakened beings. The matter to be discussed here is thus restricted to how arahants conduct their lives and act within society.

Arahants have brought ’kamma’ to cessation63; they have ended kamma.64 Their actions are no longer referred to as kamma – the technical term for their actions is kiriyā (’doing’).65 Ignorance, craving and clinging do not control their actions; they act with a free mind and with wisdom, clearly understanding cause and effect. They do not cling to ideas of right or wrong, which for other people are connected to a sense of personal identity and gain. They have no hidden personal desires; they have no conceit about ’my virtue’ or ’my good deeds’, for example. They act objectively, reasonably and correctly. They transcend bad kamma, since there is no more greed, hatred or delusion that could lead to harm or evil, and they also transcend good kamma.

One may pose the question that all actions require a motivating force and that the crucial motivation is desire (which is a form of craving – taṇhā). How is it possible for arahants to act when they have abandoned craving? Surely they remain passive and idle. Although they do no bad deeds, they also do no good deeds. An answer to this question is that desire is not the only motivating force for action. Reasoned consideration is also a motivating force.

The flow of human life is dependent upon dynamic forces. Unless other factors interfere, the way we live our lives is directed by knowledge. A lack of knowledge gives craving the opportunity to distort or dictate life’s course. These two forces, of selfish desire and reasoned understanding, are often in conflict with one another. At times selfishness has the upper hand, at other times sound judgement prevails. When a person is released from the controlling power or ’furtive whispering’ of craving, life progresses without restraint, in harmony with wisdom. Wisdom becomes the motivating force.

Craving does not just dictate action; it can also hinder action when knowledge encourages us to act. {363} Craving therefore can be a motivating force for action and for inaction. Inaction in such a case is a kind of action: an act of inaction. Craving can have many functions: it can direct, coerce, or impede. When a wholesome action is not performed, say a student is disinterested in lessons or people do not help one another, we should not merely consider the absence of a motivating force for action. We should also reflect on the motivation for inaction: to take into account the craving, which comes in the form of laziness, aversion, or pleasure directed towards other objects, and has a greater pull on attention. A habitual dependence on craving creates a secondary struggle, between the urge to act and the urge not to act. Whichever selfish motivation is stronger wins. When wisdom is the dominant motivation this struggle is absent.

Through a profound analysis, one recognizes another dynamic. As soon as wisdom understands according to reasoned judgement whether to act or to refrain from acting, an additional force arises in the mind which propels one to action or to restraint. This force can be referred to as a form of desire, or as a motivation, which will be discussed at more length below.66

Above, the concepts of craving as a motivation and of wisdom as a motivation were introduced. At first glance these two kinds of motivation seem to be at opposites. Although this subject is covered in another chapter, it is relevant to the current topic and thus deserves a basic explanation.

Simply speaking, human beings have two kinds of motivation. The first kind is driven by craving and is based on our feelings. It is comprised of desires, wishes, and needs that follow sensation. If something is pleasurable, one wants to acquire it; if something is delicious, one wants to savour it. This kind of desire requires no knowledge of whether the object of desire is correct or incorrect, beneficial or harmful.

The second kind of motivation springs from wisdom. This is comprised of desires, wishes, and needs that accord with reasoned understanding and a true comprehension of what is correct. For example, one sees a road that is cracking, filthy, obstructed, or slippery. One knows that according to its real purpose and value, such a thoroughfare should be clean, smooth, and safe. When one sees the road in such a damaged state, one wishes to repair and clear it. In contrast with the motivation of craving, this second kind is called the ’motivation of wholesome enthusiasm (chanda)’.

Chanda refers to desires, wishes, and needs that are in line with reality (sabhāva). One wishes for something to be as good, fine, complete, upright or fulfilled as it naturally should be. This is independent of one’s likes and dislikes, or of wanting to either acquire the object or wanting it to disappear, in order to satisfy one’s personal sentiments. {364} Indeed, the desire of wholesome enthusiasm is cultivated alongside the development of wisdom.

When this form of desire, of wanting things to exist in an ideal, natural state, extends outwards in relation to other human beings, it manifests as a wish for others to be well, complete, strong, bright, respected, and happy. Moreover, one wants them to be established in righteousness, established in Dhamma, free from faults and shortcomings.

The Buddha gave great emphasis to human relationships. In this context, according to the circumstances, wholesome enthusiasm vis-à-vis others is expanded into four different kinds: lovingkindness (mettā) – the wish for others to be happy under normal circumstances; compassion (karuṇā) – the wish to help others in times of trouble and distress, to help them escape from suffering; appreciative joy (muditā) – well-wishing, the desire for others to increase in happiness and success; and equanimity (upekkhā) – the wish for others to be established in righteousness, in truth, in a freedom from defect and harm.

Compassion is especially prominent in those people who have reached Nibbāna, who are completely free and happy. Freedom of action based on wisdom, or a motivational force stemming from wisdom, allows for the strength of wholesome desire in the form of compassion to be expressed to the full. Compassion is a key quality of the Buddha and the arahants.

For a person endowed with general humanitarian qualities, compassion arises automatically when encountering someone else who is suffering. This compassion, however, is contingent on an inner freedom and an understanding of things as they are. In that moment one is not dominated by ignorance (avijjā), craving (taṇhā), and grasping (upādāna), for example: one is not acting out of personal gain; one is free of selfish concerns; and one does not find pleasure in others’ misfortune which answers to a secret wish to inflate one’s sense of self.

When the heart is not oppressed, it becomes expansive and is fully sensitive to the suffering of others. There is empathy, understanding, and a wish to free others from suffering. If craving does not interfere (as self-concern, a fear of losing an advantage, or laziness, for instance), life will be guided by wisdom and the wish to help others will transform into compassionate action.

Chanda is the desire of those whose minds are clear and free, who are ready to truly receive other people, responding to them with an understanding of their suffering. And their altruistic intentions, of wanting other people to be released from suffering, are readily extended outwards into active deeds of compassionate assistance.

This all-embracing compassion, of wanting to assist others and free them from suffering, is a potent force in the lives of those who have realized Nibbāna, for whom no lingering sense of a ’self’ – no fixed identity – remains which needs to be protected and gratified. {365}

In sum, true compassion results from wisdom and liberation. The specific term for wisdom in this context is vijjā and the specific term for liberation is vimutti:

  1. Vijjā: comprehensive knowledge of reality that allows no room for a belief in ’self’ (attā).

  2. Vimutti: liberation; freedom.

  3. Karuṇā: compassion; expansiveness of the heart; responsiveness to the suffering of beings; the wish to console others and promote their liberation.

These three qualities are the opposite of:

  1. Avijjā: ignorance of the truth, leading to the obstruction of ’self’.

  2. Taṇhā: craving; the desire to compensate for the inadequacy of the ’self’ or to reinforce the idea of ’self’.

  3. Upādāna: tenacious clinging to things when it is judged that these things will profit the ’self’ or will lead to personal prestige and power.

Arahants have abandoned ignorance, craving and clinging. They possess wisdom as a beacon for action and compassion as a motivating force. If the sole motivation for action were to be craving, then benevolent assistance could never be true or pure. By the same token, as long as assistance to others is motivated by craving, it is not true compassion.

Craving (including ignorance and clinging) is a hazardous motivating force and causes us to be blind to our own and others’ wellbeing. Even if we consider such wellbeing, our vision is distorted; we do not truly understand what is advantageous and disadvantageous. What is beneficial is seen as detrimental and what is detrimental is seen as beneficial. Craving in the form of lust, anger and delusion overwhelms the mind, or as the five hindrances (nīvaraṇa)67 it obstructs the functioning of the mind. When there are no such defilements, the mind is calm and bright; it is able to recognize true benefit.68

Arahants are able to assist others in a fully compassionate way because they have fulfilled their own state of wellbeing. They have ’attained personal wellbeing’ (anuppatta-sadattha) and they have ’done what had to be done’ (kata-karaṇīya). When personal matters (attattha) are finalized, personal wellbeing is complete (attahita-sampatti); one is inwardly complete and need no longer worry about oneself. A person is then able to fully attend to the wellbeing and concerns of others (parattha), and live life by benefiting others (parahita-paṭipatti).69 With such fulfilment arahants have acquired the qualities of being a ’friend to all’ (sabba-mitta), a ’companion to all’ (sabba-sakhi), and ’kind-hearted toward all beings’ (sabba-bhūtānukampaka).70 {366}

The word attha (translated above as ’wellbeing’) here does not refer to the usual meaning as an ’advantage’.71 It refers instead to true benefit, to the most important aspect of a person’s life, in particular to personal attributes that promote prosperity, maturity, resourcefulness, and self-reliance. (This stands in contrast to so-called personal benefits which often cause harm, for instance eating delicious food but to great excess.) The main purpose of this ’inner wealth’ is to develop virtue, specifically wisdom, and to lead to freedom from the controlling power of ignorance, craving and clinging.

The conduct of arahants can be divided into two categories: work and personal activities. In regard to work, arahants tend to be leaders. They fulfil their responsibilities as Buddhist disciples in an optimum way, since they have escaped from the constrictive ’noose’ of defilements. The responsibility of Buddhist disciples is revealed clearly in the Buddha’s repeated instruction, which he gave when he sent disciples out to proclaim the teachings during the first year of his ministry: to act for the welfare and happiness of the many (bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya), for the compassionate assistance of the world (lokānukampāya), and for the wellbeing, support and happiness of gods and human beings (atthāya hitāya sukhāya devamanussānaṃ).72 These qualities are significant objectives of the holy life (brahmacariya);73 they are the criteria of behaviour and practice for bhikkhus;74 and they are the virtues present in persons who are considered supreme according to the Buddhist teachings.75 They are therefore constant considerations for a Buddhist disciple when performing duties and work.

The principal work of arahants is to provide instruction to promote mindfulness, wisdom, and other spiritual qualities, and to act as a role model for a happy and virtuous life. Later generations can take these persons as examples to live up to (diṭṭhānugati: ’following a clear example’). It is fair to say that teaching others is an arahant’s obligation.76

A similar standard – of seeking the welfare of all – holds true regarding arahants’ personal conduct. Although arahants have ’finished their business’, and once they have realized Nibbāna they may abandon those practices that were undertaken for realization, they frequently conduct themselves as before. On a personal level this is for abiding at ease in the present (diṭṭhadhamma-sukhavihāra), and in relation to others it is for compassionate assistance to later generations (pacchimā-janatānukampā) by providing a good example. Illustrations of this latter motive include the Buddha’s abiding in forest dwellings,77 and Ven. Mahā Kassapa Thera’s observance of the austere practices (dhutaṅga).78 {367} Even those community elders who have not realized Nibbāna emphasize acting as an example for later generations.79 For an arahant, the ideal human being, such responsibility in this area is exceptional. Note also that some of the rules of discipline (vinaya) were not prescribed as a result of grave offences, but rather due to actions being improper in consideration of future generations.80

To sum up, the conduct of arahants, both in regard to duties and to personal activities, aims for the welfare of the many and is done in consideration of later generations. They act for the welfare of others (parattha) and to benefit others (parahita-paṭipatti), consistent with the virtue of compassion, which acts as the motivation. It is difficult, however, to clearly picture the life of the arahants by drawing from stories passed down from the Buddha’s time. These stories are dispersed throughout the suttas, the rules of discipline, and the later texts, and they stress essential teachings on Dhammavinaya rather than the arahants’ personal activities.

The Buddha’s record of foremost disciples (etadagga),81 which the commentators claim is a bestowal of rank,82 includes a long list of arahants’ names, but it merely praises individual abilities or distinctions of particular disciples. The list mentions work only when the performance of this work was outstanding, for example Ven. Dabba-Mallaputta was foremost as the assigner of lodgings (senāsana-paññapaka). There is no mention, for example, of those foremost as distributors of meal invitations (bhattuddesaka), distributors of robes (cīvara-bhājaka), or building managers (nava-kammika), who are similarly officials appointed by the monastic community. The arahants mentioned in this list may have had other regular duties. Moreover, there is a difficulty in that the meanings of some words describing distinction are obscure. {368} Therefore, this list of names (etadagga) is inadequate for portraying the extent of arahants’ activities.83

Nonetheless, we can see in this list of foremost disciples that many of the outstanding qualities are matters related to teaching. One can say that teaching and training others are duties for all arahants, to be done according to their ability. Other activities vary, based on individual skill or disposition. Those arahants proficient in teaching, as preceptors and teachers (ācariya), were honoured and had many disciples. Besides their general teaching duties, they were also responsible for training these disciples; the suttas thus tell of many great monks who, on their travels, were accompanied by large numbers of bhikkhus.84

Teaching disciples includes educating novices (sāmaṇera). Ven. Sāriputta, for example, was adept at teaching children and probably had many novices under his care. When Ven. Rāhula was preparing to be ordained as a novice, the Buddha entrusted him to Sāriputta as his preceptor.85 There are many famous young accomplished novices who were Sāriputta’s pupils.86 On one occasion Sāriputta, while walking for alms, met an impoverished orphan, who was wandering in search of food scraps, and out of compassion encouraged him to ordain as a novice and study the Dhammavinaya.87 The Buddha reminded the monks to look after the children who came to be ordained.88 {369}

With the influx of large numbers of people seeking training came the duty of supervision. The Buddha advocated a sense of responsibility around this supervision of the community.89 The objective of community administration is to facilitate training, and to provide education to as many disciples or students as possible in an atmosphere of mutual support.

Apart from the responsibilities of teaching, training, and supervising, the Pali Canon shows that arahants honoured community activities. Buddhists hold the community (saṅgha) as the authority. The Buddha continually emphasized communal harmony, both in his Dhamma teachings (e.g. the ’conditions of prosperity’ – aparihāniya-dhamma,90 and the emphasis of holding the Dhamma as one’s teacher91), and in the rules of discipline, especially those concerning formal acts of the monastic community (saṅgha-kamma).92

Many stories demonstrate concern for communal activities and respect for the community. For example, when the Buddha encouraged the monks to perform the observance day (uposatha) each fortnight, by reciting the Pāṭimokkha and confirming their purity, Ven. Mahākappina wondered whether he should participate in the ceremony, since he was an arahant and completely pure. The Buddha knew what he was thinking and admonished him:

If you, a brahmin (an arahant), do not honour the observance day, who will honour it? You should go and perform the observance day ceremony.

Vin. I. 105.

Ven. Dabba-Mallaputta accomplished the fruit of arahantship while still young. He thought:

I realized arahantship at seven years of age. Whatever a disciple should attain, I have attained completely. There is nothing that must be done beyond this, nor is that which had to be done and is finished need to be added to. What service can I perform for the sangha?

Later, he thought:

I should assign dwellings and distribute food for the sangha.

He then went to inform the Buddha of his willingness. The Buddha consented and had the bhikkhus meet to consider and accept his appointment as the assigner of lodgings and distributor of food.93

When events take place that may disturb the monastic order, arahants earnestly exert themselves to resolve the issue, even though they usually prefer to abide in quiet and solitude. {370} Ven. Mahā Kassapa, for example, began the proceedings of the First Recitation,94 and Venerables Yasa Kākaṇḍaputta, Sambhūta Sāṇavāsī and Revata initiated the Second Recitation.95

In the First Recitation, after the formal act of the sangha (saṅgha-kamma) was complete and the meeting was officially ended, some elders present at the meeting formally admonished Ven. Ānanda concerning offences or mistakes during his attendance on the Buddha. Although Ānanda had plenty of evidence showing that he did not fail in his duty, after clearly explaining his conduct he nonetheless acknowledged the criticism by these elders.96

When the bhikkhu sangha met to settle legal matters during the Second Recitation, two arahants failed to come to the meeting on time. The gathered elders imposed a penalty, presenting them with tasks to be performed.97 At the time of King Milinda, a king of Greek ancestry who ruled in Northwest India and was erudite in religious doctrines and philosophy, the king challenged various religious sects to debate, causing a disturbance in Buddhist circles. The elder arahants met to consider a response to the situation. One arahant, named Rohaṇa, had entered the ’attainment of cessation’ (nirodha-samāpatti) in the Himalayas and being unaware of the meeting did not attend. The gathering sent a messenger to invite him and also required expiation, presenting him with the responsibility of ordaining the boy Nāgasena.98

Later texts contain similar stories. For example, when the bhikkhu sangha was helping King Asoka to preserve the teachings, an arahant named Upagutta had gone into seclusion enjoying the happiness of jhāna, unaware of the community’s activities. The sangha assembly sent a bhikkhu to fetch him and then imposed a penalty for seeking his own individual comfort and not staying in connection with the community. They gave him the duty of overseeing the celebration of Asoka’s stupa, which he performed out of respect for the community.99 Whatever the authenticity of these stories, especially the later ones, they demonstrate clearly the Buddhist tradition of arahants being role models in honouring the community and being responsible for communal activities. The cause or motivation for these actions is the same as that mentioned earlier:

So that the leading of a sublime life (brahmacariya, i.e. the Buddha’s teaching) may endure and be established for a long time, and for the wellbeing and happiness of gods and human beings.{371}

Cf.: D. III. 210-11.

Mental Self-Mastery (bhāvita-citta)

The principal characteristic of an enlightened person’s mind is freedom, which is the result of wisdom. When a person sees things according to the truth, fully comprehending conditioned phenomena, the mind is released from the control of the defilements. The scriptures usually describe the perfection of freedom as follows:

The mind, which has been fully cultivated by wisdom, is released from the taints (āsava).

D. II. 81, 91, 123.

When one knows and sees in this way, the mind is released from the taint of sense desire, the taint of becoming, and the taint of ignorance.

E.g.: Vin. III. 5; D. I. 84; M. I. 23, 183-4; A. I. 165; A. IV. 174-5.

One aspect of freedom from defilement is the end of enslavement to alluring and provocative sense objects. The Buddha said that sense objects are the basis for greed, hatred and delusion.100 Also, the absence of an impulse to act unjustly or harmfully guarantees moral rectitude.101 Another aspect of freedom is the absence of fear, trepidation and terror.102

An arahant has mastery over sense objects and is thus described as ’one who has trained the sense bases’ (i.e. he or she has completed the development of the sense faculties – indriya-bhāvanā). This means that when cognizing a sense object, for example a sight or a sound, and a natural recognition of agreeableness, disagreeableness or neutrality arises, arahants can control perception (saññā) as they wish. For example, they can perceive the repulsive as unrepulsive, or perceive the unrepulsive as repulsive, as well as abandon both the repulsive and the unrepulsive, dwelling equanimous and mindful.103

Possessing mindfulness and self-mastery, an arahant is called ’one who has been trained’,104 and a ’self-conqueror, the greatest of those victorious in battle’.105 An arahant’s mind is stable, and does not tremble as a consequence of agreeable or disagreeable sense objects. It is like a mountain, which is not shaken by the wind,106 or like the earth, which bears all things and is neither angered nor offended when filthy items are cast upon it.107

An additional aspect of freedom is non-clinging, which the Buddha often compared to a lotus leaf, which is not adhered to by water, or a lotus blossom, which grows in the mud but is pure, clean and beautiful.108 A person begins by not clinging to sensuality, to merit, and to good and evil, as clinging to these things is the cause for brooding over the past and yearning for the future: {372}

[A bhikkhu who has realized the Dhamma] does not grieve over the past, and does not fantasize over the future; he is sustained by what is present, thus his complexion is bright. As for the ignorant, they fantasize over the future, and pine over the past; thus they are haggard, like a fresh reed that has been plucked and left in the sun.

S. I. 5.

In the Bhaddekaratta Sutta there is a similar passage:

One should not pursue the past, nor yearn for the future; the past has gone away, the future has not yet been reached.

M. III. 187.

Not brooding over the past and not yearning for the future are classified here as aspects of the citta, not of wisdom. They correspond to the domain of ’emotion’. There are terms describing the attributes of an arahant in respect to the past and future that are matters of wisdom, for example: reminiscence of past lives (pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa), knowledge of the decease and rebirth of beings (cutūpapāta-ñāṇa), knowledge of the past (atītaṁsa-ñāṇa), and knowledge of the future (anāgataṁsa-ñāṇa).109 Arahants draw upon knowledge of the past and use wisdom to consider future activities. Indeed, because an arahant’s heart is free from the past and future, knowledge concerning the past and future can be used by wisdom in the most beneficial way. In addition, an arahant’s actions are generally performed to assist future generations, as was explained earlier.

Some of the aspects of an arahant’s mind will be at odds with the views of ordinary people, since superficially these aspects are considered unpleasant or blameworthy. One such aspect that the Buddha mentioned often is nirāsa (or nirāsā), which can be translated as ’hopeless’, ’wishless’, or ’without expectation’.110 This hopelessness, or absence of wishing, of an enlightened person has a more profound meaning, however, than that which most people usually consider. Ordinary human beings normally live with hope. This hope is based on desire, wanting various things or wanting to be a particular way, thus hoping to obtain or to become. This hope sustains life; when someone is disappointed or feels hopeless due to not getting what is wished for, or due to the unattainability of an object, then that person is considered to have misfortune. When someone is gratified by obtaining what is wanted or something desirable appears to be within reach, that person is considered to be fortunate.

A hopeful person, however, still has a concealed expectation or anticipation that is constantly present, even if he is not conscious of it, that is, the possibility of being disappointed or falling into despair. This aspect of hope is often referred to as ’apprehension’, which is a form of fear – a form of suffering. Hope thus comes paired with apprehension; if hope remains, fear remains. {373}

An arahant resembles the person who has lost hope, but there is an important distinction. An arahant’s ’hopelessness’ or absence of expectation is not a consequence of there being no way to obtain what is desired; instead, it results from an inner completeness and satiety. There is nothing lacking which must be wished for; there is no deficiency giving rise to desire and hope. In short, an arahant’s freedom from hope stems from an absence of craving. When one does not yearn for things, and does not long to be some particular way, then there is nothing to be hoped for. When there is nothing to be hoped for then one lives without hope; one has given up or ended hope, along with the fear that springs from hope.

This implies that people can exist without depending on or entrusting their life and happiness to hope. Arahants have gone beyond both gratification and hopelessness as these terms are ordinarily defined. Being fulfilled and content, they surpass those who are gratified or hopeful. This is a level that is superior to or free from hope, because there is complete happiness in each present moment. There is no opportunity for further disappointment or despair (compare this with assaddha – ’faithlessness’ – as a wisdom quality).

Many other heart qualities exist, which are related to those mentioned above, for example:111

  • Akiñcana: no anxiety; nothing lingering in the mind.

  • Asoka: happy; sorrowless.

  • Khema: secure; safe.

  • Nicchāta: ’hungerless’.

  • Santa: no confusion, restlessness, worry, irritation, depression, boredom, or fear; peaceful.

  • Santuṭṭha: satisfied; contented.

  • Sītibhūta; nibbuta: tranquil; cooled.

  • Viraja: free from mental impurity; immaculate.

  • Visaṭṭho gacchati …: ’Totally at ease while walking, standing, sitting and lying down.’

The Buddha emphasized happiness (sukha). There are terms describing the state of Nibbāna as happiness, terms describing those who have realized Nibbāna as happy, and statements by such realized ones themselves describing their own happiness. For example:

Nibbāna is the supreme happiness; M. I. 509; Dh. verses 202-204.

Nibbāna is indeed great happiness; Ud. 15; Thag. verses 227, 263.

There is no greater happiness
than the happiness of Nibbāna; Thīg. verse 476.

This is unsurpassed happiness; A. III. 354.

Truly, the arahants are happy; S. III. 83.

One perfectly awakened always sleeps happily; A. I. 138.

One who is without anxiety is indeed happy; Ud. 14.

I, without anxiety, am indeed truly happy; Dh. verses 200-204.

Oh, what bliss! Vin. II. 183; Thīg. verse 24.

Even for those who are training in the Dhamma it is necessary to view Nibbāna as happiness for the practice to be correct, as stated in the Buddha’s words:

Monks, that someone who views Nibbāna as suffering will possess investigation conducive to the realization of truth (anulomikā khanti) is impossible. That someone who does not possess investigation conducive to the realization of truth will proceed to the righteous way (sammatta-niyāma) is impossible. {374} That someone who has not proceeded to the righteous way will realize the fruits of stream-entry, once-returner, non-returner, or arahantship is impossible.

Monks, that someone who views Nibbāna as happiness will possess investigation conducive to the realization of truth is possible. That someone who possesses investigation conducive to the realization of truth will proceed to the righteous way is possible. That someone, who proceeds to the righteous way should realize the fruits of stream-entry, once-returner, non-returner, or arahantship is possible.112

A. III. 442-3.

Although Nibbāna is happiness, and those who have realized Nibbāna are happy, such realized ones do not cling to happiness of any kind, and do not become attached to or indulge in Nibbāna.113 When cognizing external sense objects, for example by way of the eye or ear, an arahant still experiences feelings – pleasant, unpleasant and neutral – connected with those objects, just like an ordinary person. An exception exists, however, in that an arahant experiences feelings without being constricted by defilement. An arahant neither rejoices over nor is troubled by feelings; nor are those feelings a cause for craving. Feeling exists at only one level, which is called ’experiencing feeling by way of the body but not the mind’. Feeling does not give rise to internal affliction or worry; such feeling is said to be ’cooled’. An arahant experiences feelings without latent tendencies (anusaya), unlike unenlightened beings, who have the latent tendency of lust (rāgānusaya) when experiencing pleasure, the latent tendency of hostility (paṭighānusaya) when experiencing pain, and the latent tendency of ignorance (avijjānusaya) when experiencing neutral feelings, perpetually increasing the habit and strength of these defilements.114

Pleasure and pain from external sources are unable to affect an arahant’s internal happiness. An arahant’s happiness is thus independent, not relying on external phenomena. It is an immaterial happiness (nirāmisa-sukha), or even surpasses immaterial happiness (ordinary nirāmisa-sukha is the happiness of jhāna.)115 As an arahant’s happiness is independent of external conditions, the natural fluctuation of things is not a cause for suffering. Even if the six sense objects change and pass away, an arahant still abides in happiness;116 even if the five aggregates change and become otherwise, there is no sorrow or suffering.117 A thorough knowledge of impermanence brings about tranquillity and contentment. The Buddha described this happiness as one attribute of being a refuge onto oneself, or of having the Dhamma as a refuge.118 {375}

Another important descriptive term for an arahant’s mind, which covers many of the characteristics already mentioned, is ārogya, translated as ’without sickness’ or ’freedom from illness’. It can also be rendered as ’health’ or ’healthy’. Ārogya is an epithet for Nibbāna.119 Being without illness or being healthy refers here to the absence of mental illness or to a healthy mind, as mentioned in the Buddha’s teachings to an aged layman:

You should practise and train yourself thus: although the body is diseased, the mind will not be diseased.

S. III. 1.

The Buddha said that there are two kinds of illness: physical and mental:

Beings who can assert to be without illness of the mind are difficult to find in the world, with the exception of one who is free from the taints.

A. II. 143-4.

These words of the Buddha illustrate that an arahant is a person with perfect mental health.

The description of an arahant as being free of illness or in good health reveals the value of realizing Nibbāna. One may wonder: if arahants do not seek the pleasures cherished by ordinary people, how can they be happy, and what worth does Nibbāna have?

An absence of illness is a condition of happiness that is complete in itself. It is far better than the happiness resulting from a temporary alleviation of pain, not to mention the discomfort of sickness and chronic ailments.

Obtaining medicine or treatment to allay symptoms of illness offers momentary happiness. The more severe the symptoms, the greater the happiness when the symptoms subside. From one perspective, a healthy person is denied this kind of pleasure. But no one in their right mind would desire a sick person’s happiness, of waiting to savour the end of pain and discomfort.

In the case of an illness, happiness is experienced through the repeated or occasional alleviation of discomfort and agitation. Such occasional happiness can be compared to the pleasure sought by ordinary people. The happiness of being without illness, which is normally not recognized as happiness, is simply internal ease and relief. This can be compared to the state of an arahant or to the happiness of Nibbāna.

The Buddha applied the analogy of a leper with erupting sores. Due to irritation and itching, the leper scratches the lesions and heats his flesh over coals. The more he scratches and sears his body, the more itchy and inflamed do the sores become. The happiness and pleasant sensation he receives relies upon having a wound that can be scratched. {376} The leper will remain in this state until a skilled doctor prepares a medicine that cures him of the leprosy. Cured of leprosy, he becomes a person in good health (aroga), happy (sukhī), free (serī), with self-mastery (sayaṁvasī), and able to go where he pleases (yena-kāmaṅgama). Both the scratching of the sores and the heating by the fire, which used to provide him with pleasure and relief, are no longer considered by him as a form of happiness. He now regards such behaviour as painful and miserable.

This analogy can be applied to ordinary beings, who seek pleasure from the five ’strands’ of sensuality. Although they experience pleasure through obtaining things and gratifying desire, they are inflamed by desire, experiencing increasing turmoil and agitation. When life is conducted in this manner, pleasure and delight only revolve around the arousal of craving, leading to increased passion. Gratification is sought to temporarily quell the agitation. With the realization of Nibbāna, no ’fuel’ remains to provoke craving, and happiness is experienced without alleviating an inflammation.120

An unenlightened person is compared to someone who derives pleasure from scratching an itch. The greater the itch the more one scratches, and the more one scratches the greater the itch. And the greater the itch the greater the pleasure from scratching. An ordinary person thus likes to increase the degree of pleasure by seeking ways to increase the stimulation and excitement, and so increase the itch; as a result more pleasure is experienced from increased scratching. A realized being is like someone who is cured from an itch-inducing illness, whose normal physical state is healthy; happiness exists due to the absence of an itch and of a need to scratch. An ordinary person, however, may criticize such a person as lacking the pleasure derived from scratching an itch.

Similarly, an unenlightened person’s search for happiness is like building up and fanning a fire, and then receiving amusement and coolness by extinguishing it. The brighter and hotter the fire, the more effort needed for extinguishing, causing more spectacular crackling and flashing. Ordinary people conduct their lives in this way, despite greater risks of danger for themselves and others. Those who are liberated resemble persons who have extinguished the fire. They live in ease, coolness, and safety, with no need to be burnt, and with no need to be on guard against dangers from heat. They are not engaged in the thrill or anxiety of extinguishing a fire that they previously ignited.

Realization brings about changes in personality, as well as in attitudes towards the world. Such mental transformation can be compared to the development of a child into an adult. Adults no longer hold dear those toys and games that were cherished during childhood. An adult may even be amused seeing a child fascinated with and possessive of such toys. Likewise, a person who has realized Nibbāna has reached a stage of development that surpasses ordinary beings. Attitudes towards life, towards things admired by ordinary people, and towards the way people conduct their lives, have changed.121 {377}

Wisdom Self-Mastery (bhāvita-paññā)

The basis for an arahant’s wisdom is the ability to see things as they truly are. This clear seeing starts at cognition of sense objects by way of the six senses, with a mind that is equanimous and mindful, not swayed by pleasure or aversion. Such a person is able to observe a sense impression from beginning to end without being distracted or disturbed by it. Ordinary people, on the other hand, tend to get stuck at the point where sense impressions produce a feeling of pleasure and aversion. As a result, they tend to elaborate on and create distorted ideas about the things they encounter. They have a false understanding: they see things clouded by defilement rather than as they truly are. Take for example a person who agrees with a statement when he has been flattered but disagrees without the flattery. Or a person may agree because he likes the speaker yet disagree when the identical subject is mentioned by someone he dislikes.122

Arahants are not deceived by the external appearances of things; they acknowledge all facets of the truth and do not attach to just one perspective. The wisdom of an arahant helps to dispel the claim that Buddhism is a pessimistic doctrine. For example, those who have realized the truth (buddhadhamma) know that the five aggregates are neither exclusively painful nor exclusively pleasant.123 A person who is to be enlightened must understand the merits (assāda) and disadvantages (ādīnava) of sense desire, as well as the deliverance (nissaraṇa) from it. The merits are seen as merits, the disadvantages as disadvantages, and the deliverance as deliverance. The abandonment of sense desire and the end of both hankering for the world and grasping the five aggregates is due to seeing the way of deliverance. A person will then be independent of such merits and disadvantages, abiding in happiness – a happiness that is subtler and greater than happiness conditioned by pleasant and unpleasant experiences.124

The exquisite things in the world are not referred to as sense desire (kāma); [only] a person’s lustful intentions constitute sense desire…. The exquisite things in the world abide just as they are; therefore, the wise [only] remove the fascination for these things.

A. III. 411.

Another level of wisdom is the comprehension of the universal characteristics (impermanence – anicca, dukkha, and ’nonself’ – anattā), and of language, in particular of ’conventions’ (sammati) and ’designations’ (paññatti). {378} The comprehension of language includes understanding the nature of ’worldly speech’ (lokiya-vohāra) and knowing how to use language to convey meaning without clinging to linguistic conventions:

A monk whose mind is liberated sides with no one and disputes with no one; he employs the speech currently used in the world without attaching to it.

M. I. 500.

An arahant with taints destroyed may say, ’I speak this way, and they speak to me this way.’ Skilful, knowing the world’s parlance, he uses such terms as mere expressions.

S. I. 14.

Monks, I do not contend with the world; rather, it is the world that contends with me. A speaker of the Dhamma (dhamma-vādī) does not dispute with anyone in the world. Whatever the learned ones agree upon as not existing in the world, I too say that it does not exist. Whatever the learned ones agree upon as existing, I too say that it exists.

S. III. 138.

These are worldly terms, expressions, manners of speech and designations. The Tathāgata uses these, but does not attach to them.

D. I. 202.

With the arising of wisdom, seeing how all conditioned things originate from interdependent causes, a person understands the world according to truth. This is the arising of a correct worldview. Metaphysical beliefs and theories, as well as doubts (avyākata-pañhā)125 vanish automatically:

Monks, with the remainderless fading away and cessation of ignorance, whichever conflicting, obstinate, and confounding views exist, such as: ’What are mental formations? Who owns these mental formations? Mental formations are one thing, the owners of such formations are another thing; the life principle (jīva) and the body are the same; the life principle is one thing, the body is another’ – all of these views are abandoned.

S. II. 64.

A bhikkhu inquired: What is the cause, what is the condition, by which a learned noble disciple will not have doubt arise concerning the matters that the Lord has not explained?

The Buddha replied: With the cessation of ignorance, learned noble disciples will not have doubt arise concerning the matters that I have not explained…. An unlearned, unenlightened person does not clearly know views, the origin of views, the cessation of views, and the way leading to the cessation of views. Those views increase, and he will not be released from aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair.

A. IV. 67-8.

Another feature of an arahant’s wisdom is that he or she does not rely on faith or belief, a quality which in Pali is called assaddha (’faithless’). {379} This quality is the opposite of disbelief or faithlessness in the ordinary sense, which means not believing due to lack of confidence in others or due to obstinacy. Here it means one does not need to believe because one knows and sees with clarity. One knows for oneself and is independent of the knowledge of others. Faith implies reliance on someone else’s knowledge when we do not yet clearly know for ourselves. Once we have seen something as it truly is, there is no need to depend on others for knowledge. This is a knowledge that is greater than faith or belief:

Of things that are fully known by himself, evident to himself, he does not have faith in others – neither ascetics, nor brahmins, nor gods, nor Māra, nor Brahma; he does not believe others concerning things fully known by himself, evident to himself, that is: ’Formations are impermanent; formations are dukkha; formations are nonself; with ignorance as condition, there are mental formations….’126

Nd. I. 235.

Likewise, Ven. Sāriputta said to the Buddha:

In this matter I do not go with faith to the Blessed One … this matter I have known, seen, experienced, realized and discerned with wisdom – therefore, I have no doubts or uncertainties.

S. V. 221.

At the time of the Buddha, people were very interested in the concept of a ’great man’ (mahāpurisa), and therefore there are many passages in the Tipiṭaka in reference to this term. There are references to the ’characteristics of a great man’ (mahāpurisa-lakkhaṇa), for example in the case of the brahmins’ predictions about Prince Siddhattha, which were based on their ancient texts. But from the perspective of the teachings, more interesting passages pertain to the question posed to the Buddha after his awakening of who is worthy of the title ’great man’. This frequent question shows that this concept was still important and a matter of debate.

On one occasion Ven. Sāriputta went to see the Buddha and asked him this question:

Venerable sir, it is said, ’a great man, a great man.’ In what way is one a great man?

[The Buddha replied:]

With a liberated mind, I say, Sāriputta, one is a great man. Without a liberated mind, I say, one is not a great man.

S. V. 158.

This reply indicates that the Buddha considered an arahant – one who has completed the four aspects of development – to be a great man. His reply is very brief and succinct, focusing on the final criteria: a completion of the four kinds of development, culminating in liberating wisdom. No matter how skilled or proficient a person may be, if he is still not fully liberated from mental defilement, he is not yet a great man.

To be worthy of this title, one must be free from suffering. For example, one’s thought processes are truly free from any restriction or impurity, which does not mean that one obtains everything that one wishes for or faces no obstruction or coercion from others. On the highest level, one’s wisdom is free from any domination or manipulation from a fabricated sense of ’self’. {380} One’s thoughts do not simply follow one’s desires, propelled by craving (taṇhā), conceit (māna), and fixed views (diṭṭhi).

In any case, the reason for the Buddha’s brevity here is most likely because he was speaking to Ven. Sāriputta, the foremost disciple proficient in wisdom. The Buddha thus mentioned only the decisive criteria, along with tying in the concept of liberation with the teaching on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, presenting the supreme perspective on this subject.

A teaching by the Buddha which elaborates on this concept of a great man stems from a conversation he had with Vassakāra, the chief minister of Magadha. On one occasion while the Buddha was staying in the Bamboo Grove at Rājagaha, he was approached by Vassakāra, who said that according to his own doctrine a person considered to be a great man with superior wisdom is endowed with four attributes: (1) he is highly learned, well-informed of various fields of learning, and understands the meaning of various statements, able to distinguish one from another; (2) he has a good memory; he remembers and recollects what was done and said long ago; (3) he is skilful and diligent in attending to the diverse chores of a householder; and (4) he possesses sound judgement, knowing how to carry out and arrange his affairs.

After presenting this explanation Vassakāra asked the Buddha whether he approves or rejects this statement. The Buddha replied, saying that he neither approves nor rejects the statement, but that he himself describes a great man with superior wisdom as possessing four other qualities:

  1. A person practises for the welfare and happiness of the manyfolk; he is one who has established people in the noble way, that is, to be endowed with beautiful and wholesome qualities.

  2. He thinks whatever he wants to think and does not think what he does not want to think; he intends whatever he wants to intend and does not intend what he does not want to intend; thus he has attained to mental mastery over the ways of thought.

  3. He gains at will, without trouble or difficulty, the four jhānas that constitute the higher mind (abhicitta) and are pleasant abidings in this very life.

  4. With the destruction of the taints, he has realized for himself with direct knowledge the taintless liberation of mind and liberation by wisdom, and dwells in it here and now.

A. II. 35.

Although there are many teachings by the Buddha on this concept of a great man, they usually appear in verse form and are a reply to people’s specific questions, so most are either brief or focused on one particular aspect. The teaching presented to the chief minister above is in prose, and it contains clearly defined principles, which are relevant to everyone. The four aspects of self-mastery (bhāvita) are incorporated in the four attributes of a great man. Expressed in a different way, these four attributes reveal another aspect of the four kinds of development, highlighting the superior and exceptional capabilities of an arahant which are difficult for an ordinary person to attain.

The first attribute reveals how arahants – those who have fulfilled the holy life (brahmacariya) – are no longer burdened with any personal concerns, including any form of spiritual training. From the time of their full awakening, they devote themselves entirely to the welfare and happiness of the multitudes, which becomes the essence of their lives. {381} This corresponds to the goal of the holy life – to Buddhism in its entirety – which is encapsulated in the Buddha’s frequent exhortation: to act ’for the benefit of the manyfolk, for the happiness of the manyfolk, out of compassion for people in the world.’

This compassionate, altruistic action also points to the connection between individual happiness and promoting the happiness of others.

In whichever way one describes the attributes of arahants, including the preceding description of the fourfold self-mastery, they always rest firmly on three essential qualities: wisdom (specifically called vijjā); liberation (vimutti); and compassion (karuṇā), which is the force radiating knowledge and wisdom outwards, resulting in others obtaining knowledge and arriving at deliverance.

If we identify an unawakened being as someone bound, wisdom is the knife that cuts the bonds, liberation is the release from the bonds into freedom, and compassion is, once a person is no longer agitated and anxious about his or her own concerns, the looking to others who are still bound and extricating them.

Technically, vijjā is the path (magga), whereas vimutti is generally considered fruit or result (phala). The authors of later texts, however, have divided vimutti into more detail as two parts, as both path and fruit. They say that the act or moment of release is the path; the state of having been released and abiding in freedom is the fruit.127 The realization of Nibbāna is completed at wisdom and liberation; compassion is the subsequent acting for others. In other words, personal concerns (attattha) are ended at wisdom and liberation; matters to be done for others (parattha) are deeds then taken up by compassion.

Note that of these three qualities – wisdom, liberation and compassion – liberation is a result; it is a finished condition and facilitates further action but is not the agent itself. Wisdom and compassion are agents. Wisdom is the factor bringing about the realization of Nibbāna, which is the accomplishment of personal concerns. Compassion is the factor that helps to settle the affairs of others. For this reason wisdom and compassion are professed to be primary attributes of the Buddha. Wisdom is the essential element for personal welfare (attattha) or for the completion of personal benefit (attahita-sampatti), while compassion is the essential element for others’ wellbeing (parattha) or for the practice of benefiting others (parahita-paṭipatti).

In short, the Buddha’s attributes are of two kinds: the completion of personal benefit, with wisdom as agent, and the practice of benefiting others, with compassion as agent.128 Both the completion of personal benefit and the practice of benefiting others are meaningful and genuine because they are confirmed by liberation. {382} Liberation is proof of the arrival at Nibbāna; it is an essential characteristic of Nibbāna and is synonymous with Nibbāna.

Additional Attributes of Arahants

Outward Demeanour

{396} In the Dhammacetiya Sutta, King Pasenadi of Kosala told the Buddha the reasons for his faith in the Triple Gem. The Buddha endorsed these principles as dhamma-cetiya (’monuments’ in honour of the Dhamma) and said they are fundamental to the holy life. He encouraged the members of the monastic sangha to remember them. One section of this sutta describes the bhikkhu disciples of the Buddha as follows:

Again, venerable sir, I have walked and wandered from park to park and from garden to garden. There I have seen some recluses and brahmins who are lean, wretched, unsightly, jaundiced, with veins standing out on their limbs, such that people would not want to look at them again.129 I have thought: ’Surely these venerable ones are leading the holy life in discontent, or they have done some evil deed and are concealing it…. But here I see bhikkhus smiling and cheerful, sincerely joyful, plainly delighting, their faculties fresh, living at ease, unruffled, subsisting on what others give,130 abiding with a mind as a wild deer’s.131 I have thought: ’Surely these venerable ones perceive successive states of lofty distinction in the Blessed One’s Dispensation…. This too, venerable sir, is why I infer according to Dhamma about the Blessed One: ’The Blessed One is fully enlightened, the Dhamma is well proclaimed by the Blessed One, the sangha of the Blessed One’s disciples is practising the good way.’132

M. II. 121.

At the break of dawn those bhikkhus go out from their dwellings, from the forests, the base of trees, and hillsides…. The way they walk forward, step backward, look around, and bend and extend their arms, instils faith. With eyes cast down they are perfect in demeanour.

Vin. II. 146.

As long as the monks meet in harmony, redress problems in harmony, and carry on their business in harmony, they may be expected to prosper and not decline. {397}

D. II. 76-7; A. IV. 21.

Happiness and Liberation

The elder bhikkhus dress in the morning and, taking bowl and robe, enter a village or town for alms. There they speak on the Dhamma, and the laypeople show their confidence in them. They use their gains without being tied to them, uninfatuated with them, not blindly absorbed in them, seeing the danger in them and understanding the escape. These gains increase their beauty and strength, and on that account they do not meet death or deadly suffering.

S. II. 269.

A wise one whose heart is undisturbed is free of mental proliferation. He has stopped brooding; everywhere he sees peace. He does not praise himself among his equals, superiors, or those of lower standing.

Sn. 185.

One who is free of frustration,
Who has gone beyond becoming or not becoming this or that,
Is fearless, sorrowless, blissful.
Even the devas cannot see into his heart.

Ud. 20.

One who has cut all bonds of attachment,
Removed worry deep within the heart,
The peaceful one sleeps happily,
Attained to perfect peace of mind. A. I. 138.

Masters of the Heart, Rulers of Thought

A great man is one of great wisdom … to whatever train of thought he wishes to apply himself, to that train of thought he does apply himself; to whatever train of thought he desires not to apply himself, to that train of thought he does not apply himself. Whatever intention he wishes to intend, he does so or not if he so wishes. Thus is he master of the mind in the ways of thought.133

A. II. 36.

Loving All Creatures; Intimate with Death and Separation

In life, one is unafflicted;
at death one grieves not.
If he is a sage, a seer of the path,
surrounded by grief he grieves not. Ud. 46.

I do not rejoice in death;
I am not attached to life.
I will discard this body
with established mindfulness and clear comprehension.

I do not rejoice in death;
I am not attached to life.
I wait for my time,
as a servant who has finished work
waits for his wages. {398}

Thag. verses 1002-1003; cf., e.g.: Thag. verses 654-5, 685-6.

At one time Ven. Upasena Thera was sitting in a cave in the Sītavana forest. Two venomous snakes were chasing each other when one of them fell on Upasena and bit him. The poison spread quickly. He knew that he was about to die but his behaviour did not change. He asked his fellow monks to place him on a bed and carry him so that he could enter parinibbāna outside.134

On another occasion Ven. Ānanda asked Ven. Sāriputta if he would grieve if the Buddha were to pass away. Sāriputta replied:

Even if the Teacher himself were to die, still sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair would not arise in me. However, it would occur to me: ’The Teacher, so influential, so powerful and mighty, has passed away. If the Blessed One had lived for a long time, that would have been for the welfare and happiness of the multitude, for the compassionate assistance to the world.’

S. II. 274.

The elder Ven. Adhimutta was captured by bandits but experienced no fear. The bandit leader was perplexed:

’Those people in the past whom we have killed for a sacrifice or to obtain their money were always afraid; they trembled and wailed. But you experience no fear and your complexion is bright. How is it that you don’t cry out at a time of such grave danger?’

’One who is not attached to life experiences no mental suffering, chieftain. One who has destroyed the fetters has passed beyond all fear of pain…. I do not fear death, just like someone would not fear laying down a burden…. One who has reached the Ultimate needs nothing in the world. He is not aggrieved by death; he is like one who has escaped a burning house. The Lord Buddha has said that all things in this world and all realms attainable by beings are dependent…. I have no thought of “I have been”, “I will be”, or “I will not be”, or the thought: “My formations will vanish.” Why should I cry out over these formations? Chieftain, one who sees according to truth that there is only the arising of phenomena, only the succession of formations, experiences no fear. When a person sees the world with wisdom as similar to wood and grass, then he will have no need to seize anything as “mine”; he does not grieve: “Mine is lost.”

’I have no more requirement for this body; I wish for no realm of existence; this body will disintegrate and there will not be another. Whatever you must do with my body, do as you wish. I will experience no anger or delight as a consequence of your actions.’

Listening to the elder’s words, the bandits’ hair stood on end and they dropped their weapons. After further questioning, they asked to become disciples. Some of them even requested ordination as Buddhist monks. {399}

Thag. verses 705-719.

Bhikkhus, even if bandits were to sever you savagely limb by limb with a two-handled saw, he who gave rise to a mind of hate towards them would not be carrying out my teaching.

M. I. 186.

As long as they live the arahants have abandoned the slaying of creatures … they abide friendly and compassionate to all creatures, to all beings.

A. I. 211; A. IV. 248-9, 255-6, 388-90.

Wishing: in gladness and in safety, may all beings be at ease…
Even as a mother protects with her life, her child, her only child,
So with a boundless heart should one cherish all living beings.135

Kh. 8; Sn. 26.

Even those with an arrow stuck in the breast…
Even these here, stricken, get to sleep;

So why should I not get to sleep
When my arrow has been drawn out?

Going to wild places I dread not,
Nor am I afraid to sleep.

During the nights and days nothing afflicts me,
I see for myself no loss in the world.

Therefore I can sleep in peace,
Full of compassion for all beings. S. I. 110-11.

[The first attribute of a great man with great wisdom is]: he is dedicated to the welfare of many people, to the happiness of many people. He has established many people in the way of the noble ones, that is, in possessing beautiful qualities, in possessing wholesome qualities.136

A. II. 35-6.

When encountering these canonical records of the inner life of arahants, ordinary people may brand arahants as eccentric, wrongly imagining that they have no concern for others and heartlessly let things take their own course. Therefore, it is important to remind people of arahants’ outward behaviour, that they conduct their lives responsibly and justly. What is the nature of a person’s life when there are no unresolved experiences congesting the mind or defilements ruling the heart? Eccentric or strange behaviour can be found in some persons who have attained certain levels of concentrative release (cetovimutti). Arahants, however, have attained release through wisdom (paññā-vimutti); they do not hold even to the thought: ’I am one who is free from grasping.’ No impurities are there to form an identity as someone who is unattached. No new attachments are made (e.g. to spiritual attainments) which could bring about a dismissive attitude towards the thing they left behind. Nor are there any defilements that cause disgust or disinterest. Arahants thus act reasonably, appropriately and wisely, out of wholesome service to the world. {400}

An absence of fear (even of being startled) is a key mental attribute of an arahant.137 As mentioned earlier in the section on qualities of the heart (citta), arahants are free of any greed, hatred or delusion, which are the causes for fear and anxiety. Fear stems from defilements buried deeply in the subconscious. It is an immediate reaction when confronted by frightening objects, a process that happens so quickly a person is not fully aware of it. Because the reaction occurs before mindfulness is established, fear is very difficult to conceal. It is thus a good indication that subtle mental impurities still lie dormant. When fear is present, it is not easy to deceive others or to delude oneself.

In special circumstances, when outward behaviour suggests the realization of arahantship, or someone mistakenly believes to have reached such realization, Dhamma practitioners have used fear as a test. An example from the scriptures is the story of an elder monk proficient at the eight ’attainments’ (samāpatti). As the mental defilements were suppressed by the power of these attainments, for sixty years he believed himself to be an arahant. One day when he saw a trumpeting, ferocious elephant he was startled, and thus knew that he was still unawakened.138

Seven Noble Beings

This division of noble beings focuses on the spiritual faculties (indriya) and is also connected to the eight liberations (vimokkha).

The indriya (literally: ’ruling principles’) act as sources of empowerment in spiritual practice. They control or combat unfavourable mental qualities like lack of confidence, laziness, negligence, distraction, and ignorance. There are five such faculties: faith (saddhā), energy (viriya), mindfulness (sati), concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā). Dhamma practitioners possess varying degrees of these faculties. Three of these faculties have an effect on the kind of realization of noble beings (ariya-puggala): faith (saddhindriya), concentration (samādhindriya) and wisdom (paññindriya).

Vimokkha is the liberation from unfavourable mental qualities, resulting from the delight of being absorbed in an object of attention. This liberation, however, is dependent on the power of concentration in the state of jhāna, and exists only as long as one abides in jhāna.139 It is not the complete liberation from defilements and suffering which is synonymous with Nibbāna.140 {412}

There are eight kinds of vimokkha:141

  1. ’Dwelling in form, one perceives form.’ This refers to the four fine-material jhānas of someone who practises kasiṇa142 meditation and uses an attribute of the body, e.g. the colour of hair, as the meditation object.

  2. ’Not perceiving internal form, one perceives external form.’ This refers to the four fine-material jhānas of someone who uses an external object for kasiṇa meditation.

  3. ’Absorbed in beauty.’ This refers to the jhāna of someone practising colour kasiṇa meditation. The Paṭisambhidāmagga also includes the jhāna of a person cultivating the four divine abidings (brahmavihāra or appamaññā): loving kindness (mettā), compassion (karuṇā), appreciative joy (muditā), and equanimity (upekkhā). Meditation on the four divine abidings leads a person to see all beings as beautiful, with no feelings of disgust.

  4. Abiding in the sphere of unbounded space (ākāsānañcāyatana). With the end of perception of repulsion (paṭigha-saññā) and perception of diversity (nānatta-saññā), one transcends the perception of form (rūpa-saññā). One meditates on the boundlessness of space.

  5. Transcending the sphere of unbounded space, one attains the sphere of unbounded consciousness (viññāṇañcāyatana). One meditates on the boundlessness of consciousness.

  6. Transcending the sphere of unbounded consciousness, one attains the sphere of nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana).

  7. Transcending the sphere of nothingness, one attains the sphere of neither-perception-nor-nonperception (nevasaññānāsaññāyatana).

  8. Transcending the sphere of neither-perception-nor-nonperception, one attains the cessation of perception and feeling (saññāvedayita-nirodha), also known as the ’attainment of cessation’ (nirodha-samāpatti).

These eight liberations comprise all nine ’gradual stages of meditative attainment’ (anupubbavihāra-samāpatti) as illustrated on Figure Gradual Stages of Meditative Attainment.

Gradual Stages of Meditative Attainment image

The spiritual faculties (indriya) are linked to the liberations in the following way: when a person begins spiritual practice, he or she will possess a dominant faculty of either faith or wisdom. {413} If that person develops concentration to a level higher than the third liberation (i.e. attains formless jhāna), the faculty of concentration (samādhindriya) will become the dominant faculty. Those practitioners whose dominant faculty remains faith or wisdom may attain the four fine-material jhānas but they will not attain the formless jhānas. Conventionally speaking, they do not attain ’vimokkha’. Concentration as a dominant faculty, however, in the end must give way to and act as a basis for wisdom. Up to that point, concentration will facilitate the attainment of the higher liberations (vimokkha).

At this point we can examine how the seven noble beings (dakkhiṇeyya-puggala) are connected to the faculties and liberations. Ordinarily, the seven noble beings are presented from the highest to the lowest, but to conform with the presentation of the eight noble beings presented earlier, they are listed here from the lowest to the highest:143

Learners (sekha; sa-upādisesa-puggala)

  1. Saddhānusārī: ’faith-devotee’; a person striving for stream-entry and cultivating the noble path with faith as dominant faculty. If this person attains stream-entry, he becomes ’one liberated by faith’ (saddhā-vimutta).

  2. Dhammānusārī: ’truth-devotee’; a person striving for stream-entry and cultivating the noble path with wisdom as dominant faculty. If this person attains stream-entry, he becomes ’one attained to right view’ (diṭṭhippatta).

  3. Saddhā-vimutta: ’one liberated by faith’; a person who truly understands the noble truths, has righteous conduct, and has destroyed some of the taints (āsava) through wisdom, and has faith as the dominant faculty. This refers to all those who have attained stream-entry up to those who strive for arahantship with faith as dominant faculty. If they attain arahantship, they become ’one liberated by wisdom’ (paññā-vimutta).

  4. Diṭṭhippatta: ’one attained to right view’; a person who truly understands the noble truths, has righteous conduct, and has destroyed some of the taints (āsava) through wisdom. This refers to all those who have attained stream-entry up to those who strive for arahantship with wisdom as dominant faculty. If they attain arahantship, they become a paññā-vimutta.

  5. Kāya-sakkhī: ’body witness’; a person who abides in and has ’contacted with the body’ the eight liberations, and has destroyed some of the taints (āsava) through wisdom. This refers to all those who have attained stream-entry up to those who strive for arahantship with concentration as dominant faculty. If they attain arahantship, they become ’one liberated in both ways’ (ubhatobhāga-vimutta).

Adepts (asekha; anupādisesa-puggala)

  • 6. Paññā-vimutta: ’one liberated by wisdom’; a person who does not abide in and contact with the body the eight liberations (vimokkha), but whose taints have all been destroyed by understanding the noble truths with wisdom. This refers to the arahants who have practised insight (vipassanā) as the principal meditation up to the moment of full awakening.

  • 7. Ubhatobhāga-vimutta: ’one liberated in both ways’; one who contacts with the body and abides in the eight liberations (vimokkha), and destroys all of the taints by understanding the noble truths with wisdom. This refers to the arahants who have developed a high degree of samatha (tranquillity meditation; concentration) and used this tranquillity as a foundation for practising insight to reach full awakening. {414}

Figure Noble Beings, Their Faculties and Liberations shows the connection between the 8 dakkhiṇeyya-puggala, the 7 dakkhiṇeyya-puggala, the five spiritual faculties, and the eight liberations.144

Noble Beings, Their Faculties and Liberations image

A sequential diagram is shown at Figure Noble Beings, Sequential Progression. {415}

Noble Beings, Sequential Progression image

There are some noteworthy points here in relation to dakkhiṇeyya-puggala and ariya-puggala as outlined in the two diagrams above:

  • Note that despite the strength of any other faculties within a person, at the moment of full awakening wisdom predominates.145

  • A simple definition for kāya-sakkhī is ’one who first attains jhāna and later attains Nibbāna’.146 Note also that only a ’body witness’ who is a non-returner is able to attain the eighth liberation (vimokkha).

  • The commentaries and sub-commentaries state that ubhatobhāga-vimutta are liberated in two ways: liberated from the corporeal body (rūpa-kāya) by the formless attainments, and from the mind-body (nāma-kāya) by the noble path. They are liberated on two occasions: when suppressing (vikkhambhana) the defilements by the power of concentration in jhāna, and when completely uprooting (samuccheda) the defilements.147 If ubhatobhāga-vimutta attain the threefold knowledge (vijjā), they are called tevijja. If they attain the six abhiññā (’supreme knowledge’), they are called chaḷabhiñña. If they attain the four penetrating insights (paṭisambhidā), they are called paṭisambhidappatta.

  • Paññā-vimutta practise primarily vipassanā meditation; they practise samatha meditation only to have an adequate foundation for insight. They therefore do not experience the exceptional fruits of samatha beyond the first four jhānas; they do not attain the formless jhānas, the ’attainment of cessation’ (nirodha-samāpatti), the two lokiya-vijjā (’mundane knowledge’ – recollection of past lives and knowledge of the rebirth of beings), nor do they attain the five mundane abhiññā (’supreme knowledge’ – psychic powers, the ’divine ear’, telepathy, recollection of past lives, and the ’divine eye’.)148 In principle, however, they can be paṭisambhidappatta (those who achieve the four penetrating insights).149

A summary of the subjects described so far can be outlined as follows.

An outline from the Pali Canon is illustrated on Figure Noble Beings, An Outline of Connections (here, the commentaries and sub-commentaries are referred to simply to link the material). {416}

Noble Beings, An Outline of Connections image

Figure Noble Beings, An Extended Outline shows an outline From the Pali Canon, Commentaries and Sub-commentaries.150

Noble Beings, An Extended Outline image

{417} To avoid confusion it is important here to distinguish between two ways of teaching: (a) explaining indirectly or limiting one’s examination to particular aspects (pariyāya); and (b) explaining directly, absolutely and comprehensively (nippariyāya). Of particular relevance is the discussion on the two types of arahants: paññā-vimutta and ubhatobhāga-vimutta. Ubhatobhāga-vimutta are liberated in both ways: they have attained arahantship and have also attained the formless jhānas. Paññā-vimutta have attained arahantship, but if they attain jhāna it is not higher than the fourth jhāna.

Although there are only these two types of arahants, people may get confused when encountering, for example, the description of an arahant as ’one liberated in mind’ (cetovimutta). For clarification, cetovimutta is another name for ubhatobhāga-vimutta; the term cetovimutta simply emphasizes the preferred mode of practice (in this case samatha) before reaching arahantship. It does not imply that liberation was attained solely by concentration.

In some places, arahants who have practised samatha and vipassanā in tandem are rather randomly assigned the names cetovimutta or paññā-vimutta depending on which faculty was stronger. For example, the commentaries call Ven. Sāriputta a paññā-vimutta and Ven. Mahā Moggallāna a cetovimutta.151 On some occasions these two terms are used together to describe a single arahant who has achieved both of these ways to liberation.152 Another example of how terms are used in different ways to describe arahants is in the Paṭisambhidāmagga, which uses the fixed terms saddhā-vimutta, diṭṭhippatta and kāya-sakkhī for practitioners all the way till the moment of full awakening.153 Failing to understand this indirect way of explaining can lead to confusion; all of a sudden there are multiple types of arahants.

A similar confusion can arise when explaining other terms related to Buddha-Dhamma. An example is the definition of right mindfulness (sammā-sati) as equivalent to the Four Foundations of Mindfulness (satipaṭṭhāna).154 The Four Foundations of Mindfulness are generally considered a comprehensive method of practice comprising all spiritual qualities, including effort (ātapa) and clear comprehension (sampajañña). A doubt then arises as to how the satipaṭṭhāna can be confined to merely right mindfulness. In this case, sammā-sati is the mindfulness suitable to or applied in the Four Foundations of Mindfulness. {418}

Another example is the development of concentration, of which there are four kinds.155 The description of the fourth kind includes: When developed and expanded, this meditation leads to the destruction of the taints. One may wonder how concentration (samādhi), which is equivalent to ’tranquillity’ (samatha), can lead to the destruction of the taints without ’insight’ (vipassanā). Here, concentration must be understood as the core of a person’s meditation practice, like a field where various spiritual qualities gather to battle the defilements.156 The development of concentration in this context is not isolated; it is used in conjunction with and as a support for other meditation techniques.157

Kinds of Arahants

Of all the different kinds of noble beings (ariya-puggala) and those persons worthy of offerings (dakkhiṇeyya-puggala) outlined above, arahants are supreme. They have completed their training, developed expertise (asekha), finished their spiritual cultivation (bhāvita), and reached the goal. Nothing remains for them to do in respect to personal wellbeing; instead, they act for others’ wellbeing, for the welfare and happiness of the manyfolk, out of compassion for the world.

There are two kinds of arahants, who can be further subdivided according to their special qualities:

1. ’Those liberated through wisdom’ (paññā-vimutta): Arahants who emphasize insight meditation, relying on concentration only to the necessary degree for realizing the destruction of the taints. They do not attain jhānas above the fourth jhāna; they do not have the exceptional proficiency of the ’attainment of cessation’ (nirodha-samāpatti) or the five mundane ’supreme knowledges’ (abhiññā):

  1. ’Pure insight practitioners’ (sukkha-vipassaka): arahants who exclusively practise vipassanā. They attain jhāna at the moment of realizing the Path.

  2. Those liberated through wisdom (paññāvimutta) who attain one of the first four jhānas before practising insight meditation leading to arahantship.

  3. Paṭisambhidappatta: arahants who attain the four penetrating insights (paṭisambhidā):158

    1. Attha-paṭisambhidā: clear insight into meaning (attha).

    2. Dhamma-paṭisambhidā: clear insight into principles (dhamma).

    3. Nirutti-paṭisambhidā: clear insight into language.

    4. Paṭibhāṇa-paṭisambhidā: discriminating knowledge; being perceptive and sharp-witted. {419}

2. ’Those liberated in both ways’ (ubhatobhāga-vimutta): Arahants liberated from the body through the formless attainments and liberated by mind through the noble path. They have two moments of liberation: when suppressing the defilements by the power of concentration in jhāna (vikkhambhana) and when uprooting the defilements with wisdom (samuccheda):159

  1. Ubhatobhāga-vimutta: arahants who have attained at least one of the formless jhānas but who have attained neither mundane direct knowledge (vijjā) – see below – nor mundane supreme knowledge (abhiññā).

  2. Tevijja: arahants who have attained the three kinds of direct knowledge (vijjā):

    1. Pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa: recollection of past lives.

    2. Cutūpapāta-ñāṇa: knowledge of the decease and rebirth of beings according to their kamma. Equivalent to the ’divine eye’.

    3. Āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa: knowledge of the truth resulting in the destruction of the taints (āsava).

  3. Chaḷabhiñña: arahants with the six supreme knowledges (abhiññā):

    1. Iddhividhā: psychic powers.

    2. Dibbasota: ’divine ear’.

    3. Cetopariyañāṇa: telepathy.

    4. Pubbenivāsānussati: recollection of past lives.

    5. Dibbacakkhu: ’divine eye’.

    6. Āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa: knowledge resulting in the destruction of the taints (āsava).

  4. Paṭisambhidappatta: ubhatobhāga-vimutta who have attained the four penetrating insights (paṭisambhidā).

After this subdivision a list of arahants looks like this:

  1. Sukkhavipassaka: pure insight practitioners.

  2. Paññāvimutta: those liberated by wisdom (apart from sukkhavipassaka).

  3. Ubhatobhāga-vimutta: those liberated both ways.

  4. Tevijja: those with the three kinds of direct knowledge.

  5. Chaḷabhiñña: those with the six kinds of supreme knowledge.

  6. Paṭisambhidappatta: those who have attained the four penetrating insights.160

An arahant who is both a chaḷabhiñña and a paṭisambhidappatta is considered perfected in spiritual powers. {420}

Distinctions between Different Levels of Noble Beings

(See also the section on different levels of enlightenment presented earlier.)

Trainees (sekha) and Arahants

The Venerable Sāriputta said to the Venerable Anuruddha:

’Friend Anuruddha, it is said: “A trainee, a trainee.” In what way, friend, is one a trainee?’

’It is, friend, because one has partly developed the Four Foundations of Mindfulness that one is a trainee….’

’Friend Anuruddha, it is said: “One beyond training, one beyond training.” In what way, friend, is one beyond training?’

’It is, friend, because one has completely developed the Four Foundations of Mindfulness that one is beyond training.’

S. V. 175.

Bhikkhus, I do not say of all bhikkhus that they still have work to do with diligence in regard to the six bases for contact, nor do I say of all bhikkhus that they do not have work to do with diligence in regard to the six bases for contact.

I do not say of those bhikkhus who are arahants, whose taints are destroyed … and are completely liberated through final knowledge, that they still have work to do with diligence in regard to the six bases for contact. Why is that? They have done their work with diligence; they are incapable of being negligent.

But I say of those bhikkhus who are trainees, who have not attained arahantship, who dwell aspiring for the unsurpassed security from bondage,161 that they still have work to do with diligence in regard to the six bases for contact. Why is that? There are, bhikkhus, forms (sounds, etc.) cognizable by the eye (ear, etc.) that are agreeable and those that are disagreeable. When these forms are experienced, they cannot obsess the mind of a bhikkhu [who is heedful]. When the mind is not obsessed, tireless energy is aroused, unmuddled mindfulness is established, the body becomes tranquil and untroubled, the mind becomes concentrated and one-pointed. Seeing this fruit of diligence, bhikkhus, I say that those bhikkhus still have work to do with diligence in regard to the six bases for contact.

S. IV. 124-5.

Bhikkhus, there is a method by means of which a bhikkhu who is a trainee, standing on the plane of a trainee, might understand: ’I am a trainee’, while a bhikkhu who is one beyond training, standing on the plane of one beyond training, might understand: ’I am one beyond training.’

Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu who is a trainee understands as it really is: ’This is suffering’…. ’This is the origin of suffering’…. ’This is the cessation of suffering’…. ’This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.’ This is a method by means of which a bhikkhu who is a trainee, standing on the plane of a trainee, understands: ’I am a trainee.’ {470}

Again bhikkhus, a bhikkhu who is a trainee considers thus: ’Is there outside the Buddha’s dispensation another ascetic or brahmin who teaches a Dhamma so real, so true, so certain (tatha) as the Blessed One does?’ He understands thus: ’There is no other ascetic or brahmin outside the Buddha’s dispensation who teaches a Dhamma so real, so true, so certain as the Blessed One does.’ This too is a method by means of which a bhikkhu who is a trainee, standing on the plane of a trainee, understands: ’I am a trainee.’

Again bhikkhus, a bhikkhu who is a trainee understands the five spiritual faculties – the faculty of faith, the faculty of energy, the faculty of mindfulness, the faculty of concentration, the faculty of wisdom. He does not yet dwell having contacted with the [mental] body their destination, their culmination, their fruit, their final goal; yet he sees with penetrative wisdom. This too is a method by means of which a bhikkhu who is a trainee, standing on the plane of a trainee, understands: ’I am a trainee’….

Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu who is one beyond training understands the five spiritual faculties – the faculty of faith … the faculty of wisdom. He dwells having contacted with the [mental] body their destination, their culmination, their fruit, their final goal; and he sees with penetrative wisdom. This is a method by means of which a bhikkhu who is one beyond training, standing on the plane of one beyond training, understands: ’I am one beyond training.’

Again, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu who is one beyond training understands the six faculties – the eye faculty, the ear faculty, the nose faculty, the tongue faculty, the body faculty, the mind faculty. He understands: ’These faculties will cease completely and totally without remainder, and no other six faculties will arise anywhere in any way.’ This too is a method by means of which a bhikkhu who is one beyond training, standing on the plane of one beyond training, understands: ’I am one beyond training.’

S. V. 229.

Sāriputta! A person sees as it really is with correct wisdom: ’This has come to be.’162 Having seen thus, one is practising for the purpose of disenchantment and dispassion towards what has come to be, for its cessation. One sees as it really is with correct wisdom: ’Its origination occurs with that as nutriment.’ Having seen thus, one is practising for the purpose of disenchantment and dispassion towards its origination through nutriment, for its cessation. One sees as it really is with correct wisdom: ’With the cessation of that nutriment, what has come to be is subject to cessation.’ Having seen thus, one is practising for the purpose of disenchantment and dispassion towards what is subject to cessation, for its cessation. It is in such a way that one is a trainee.

Sāriputta! How has one fully examined the Dhamma?163 A person sees as it really is with correct wisdom: ’This has come to be.’ Having seen thus, through disenchantment and dispassion towards what has come to be, through its cessation, one is liberated by non-clinging. One sees as it really is with correct wisdom: ’Its origination occurs with that as nutriment.’ Having seen thus, through disenchantment and dispassion towards what has come to be, through its cessation, one is liberated by non-clinging. One sees as it really is with correct wisdom: ’With the cessation of that nutriment, what has come to be is subject to cessation.’ Having seen thus, through disenchantment and dispassion towards what has come to be, through its cessation, one is liberated by non-clinging. It is in such a way that one has fully examined the Dhamma. {471}

S. II. 49-50.

And what, Mahānāma, is the trainee’s wisdom? A monk in this Dhamma and Discipline understands as it truly is: ’This is suffering’…. ’This is the origin of suffering’….. ’This is the cessation of suffering’… ’This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.’ This is the trainee’s wisdom.

Now, Mahānāma, that noble disciple endowed with morality, concentration and wisdom, by realizing for himself with direct knowledge, here and now enters upon and abides in the deliverance of mind and deliverance by wisdom that are taintless with the destruction of the taints.

A. I. 219-20 (a discourse by Ven. Ānanda)

Here are several more important passages distinguishing trainees from those beyond training:

He is under training, bhikkhu. That is why he is called a trainee. And what does he train in? He trains in the higher virtue, the higher mind, and the higher wisdom.

A. I. 231; and see: Nd. I. 493; Nd. II. 9.

Here, bhikkhu, one possesses a trainee’s right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. It is in this way that one is a trainee.

S. V. 14.

Here, bhikkhu, one possesses the right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration of one beyond training. It is in this way that one is beyond training.

A. V. 221-2.

S. V. 327-8 describes the difference between a trainee’s abiding and the Tathāgata’s abiding: trainees dwell having (incompletely) abandoned the five hindrances; arahants have completely eliminated the five hindrances. The Abhidhamma makes this distinction: the four magga-samaṅgī and three phala-samaṅgī are sekha, arahants are asekha, and the remainder are neither trainees nor beyond training (Pug. 14).

Those Practising for Stream-Entry and Stream-Enterers

Monks, the eye is impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. The ear… the nose… the mind… (the twelve sense spheres, the six forms of consciousness, the six contacts, the six feelings, the six perceptions, the six volitions, the six forms of craving, the six elements, the five aggregates) is impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. One who places faith in these teachings and resolves on them thus is called a faithfollower, one who has entered the fixed course of rightness, entered the plane of superior persons, transcended the plane of the worldlings. He is incapable of doing any deed by reason of which he might be reborn in hell, in the animal realm, or in the domain of ghosts; he is incapable of passing away without having realized the fruit of stream-entry.

One for whom these teachings are accepted thus after being pondered to a sufficient degree with wisdom is called a Dhamma-follower, one who has entered the fixed course of rightness…. He is incapable of passing away without having realized the fruit of stream-entry.

One who knows and sees these teachings thus is called a stream-enterer, no longer bound to the nether world, fixed in destiny, with enlightenment as his destination.

S. III. 225-8.

Stream-Enterers and Arahants

When, bhikkhus, a noble disciple understands as they really are the origin and the passing away, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in the case of these five aggregates subject to clinging, then he is called a noble disciple who is a stream-enterer, no longer bound to the nether world, fixed in destiny, with enlightenment as his destination….

When, bhikkhus, having understood as they really are the origin and the passing away, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in the case of these five aggregates subject to clinging, a bhikkhu is liberated by non-clinging, then he is called a bhikkhu who is an arahant, one whose taints are destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached his own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, one completely liberated through final knowledge.164 {472}

S. III. 160-161.

Aggivessana: ’In what way is a disciple of the recluse Gotama one who carries out his instruction, who responds to his advice, who has crossed beyond doubt, become free from perplexity, gained intrepidity, and become independent of others in the Teacher’s Dispensation?’165

The Buddha: ’Here, Aggivessana, any kind of material form (feeling, perception, volitional formation, consciousness) whatever, whether past, future, or present, internal or external … far or near, a disciple of mine sees all material form (feeling, etc.) as it actually is with proper wisdom thus: “This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self.” It is in this way that a disciple of mine is one who carries out my instruction, who responds to my advice, who has crossed beyond doubt, become free from perplexity, gained intrepidity, and become independent of others in the Teacher’s Dispensation.’

Aggivessana: ’Master Gotama, in what way is a bhikkhu an arahant with taints destroyed … and is completely liberated through final knowledge?’

The Buddha: ’Here, Aggivessana, any kind of material form (feeling, etc.) whatever … a bhikkhu has seen all material form (feeling, etc.) as it actually is with proper wisdom thus: “This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self”, and through not clinging he is liberated. It is in this way that a bhikkhu is an arahant with taints destroyed … and is completely liberated through final knowledge.’

M. I. 234-5.

Non-returners and Arahants

Venerable Nārada: Friend Saviṭṭha, apart from faith, apart from personal preference, apart from oral tradition, apart from reasoned reflection, apart from conforming to a personal opinion, I know this, I see this: ’With the cessation of birth comes cessation of aging-and-death … with the cessation of ignorance comes cessation of volitional formations’ …. I know this, I see this: ’Nibbāna is the cessation of existence.’

Venerable Saviṭṭha: Then the Venerable Nārada is an arahant, one whose taints are destroyed.

Nārada: Friend, though I have clearly seen as it really is with correct wisdom, ’Nibbāna is the cessation of existence’, I am not an arahant, one whose taints are destroyed. Suppose, friend, there was a well along a desert road, but it had neither a rope nor a bucket. Then a man would come along, oppressed and afflicted by the heat, tired, parched, and thirsty. He would look down into the well and the knowledge would occur to him, ’There is water’, but he would not be able to make bodily contact with it. So too, friend, though I have clearly seen as it really is with correct wisdom, ’Nibbāna is the cessation of existence’, I am not an arahant, one whose taints are destroyed.166 {473}

S. II. 117-18.

Venerable Khemaka: Among these five aggregates subject to clinging, I do not regard anything as self or as belonging to self….

Elder Bhikkhus: If the Venerable Khemaka does not regard anything among these five aggregates subject to clinging as self or as belonging to self, then he is an arahant, one whose taints are destroyed.

Khemaka: I do not regard anything among these five aggregates subject to clinging as self or as belonging to self, yet I am not an arahant, one whose taints are destroyed. Friends, I still experience [the notion] ’I am’ in me in relation to these five aggregates subject to clinging, but I do not regard [anything among them] as ’This I am’.167

Venerable Dāsaka: When you speak of this ’I am’ – what is it that you speak of as ’I am’? Do you speak of form as ’I am’, or do you speak of ’I am’ apart from form? Do you speak of feeling … of perception … of volitional formations … of consciousness as ’I am’, or do you speak of ’I am’ apart from consciousness? When you speak of this ’I am’, friend Khemaka, what is it that you speak of as ’I am’?

Khemaka: I do not speak of form as ’I am’, nor do I speak of ’I am’ apart from form. I do not speak of feeling as ’I am’ … nor of perception as ’I am’ … nor of volitional formations as ’I am’ … nor of consciousness as ’I am’. Nor do I speak of ’I am’ apart from consciousness. Friend, although I still experience [the notion] ’I am’ in me in relation to these five aggregates subject to clinging, I do not regard [anything among them] as: ’This I am’.

Suppose, friend, there is the scent of a blue, red, or white lotus. Would one be speaking rightly if one would say, ’The scent belongs to the petals’, or, ’The scent belongs to the colour’, or, ’The scent belongs to the pistils’?

Dāsaka: No, friend.

Khemaka: And how, friends, should one answer if one is to answer rightly?

Dāsaka: Answering rightly, one should answer: ’The scent belongs to the flower.’

Khemaka: So too, friends, I do not speak of form as ’I am’, nor do I speak of ’I am’ apart from form…. Nor do I speak of ’I am’ apart from consciousness. Friend, although I still experience [the notion] ’I am’ in me in relation to these five aggregates subject to clinging, I do not regard [anything among them] as ’This I am’.

Friends, even though a noble disciple has abandoned the five lower fetters, still, in relation to the five aggregates subject to clinging, there lingers in him a residual conceit ’I am’, a desire ’I am’, an underlying tendency ’I am’ that has not yet been uprooted.168 Sometime later he dwells contemplating rise and fall in the five aggregates subject to clinging: ’Such is form, such its origin, such its passing away; such is feeling … such is perception … such are volitional formations … such is consciousness, such its origin, such its passing away.’ As he dwells thus contemplating rise and fall in the five aggregates subject to clinging, the residual conceit ’I am’, the desire ’I am’, the underlying tendency ’I am’ that had not yet been uprooted – this comes to be uprooted.169 {474}

Suppose, friends, a cloth has become soiled and stained, and its owners give it to a laundryman. The laundryman would scour it evenly with cleaning salt, lye, or cowdung, and rinse it in clean water. Even though that cloth would become pure and clean, it would still retain a residual smell of cleaning salt, lye, or cowdung that had not yet vanished. The laundryman would then give it back to the owners. The owners would put it in a sweet-scented casket and the residual smell of cleaning salt, lye, or cowdung that had not yet vanished would vanish. So, too, friends … the residual conceit … comes to be uprooted.

S. III. 127-30.

Arahants Liberated by Wisdom and Arahants Liberated Both Ways

Ānanda, insofar as a monk, having known as they really are these seven stations of consciousness and these two spheres (see Note The Nine Abodes of Beings), their origin and cessation, their gratification, their danger, and their escape, that monk, Ānanda, is liberated by non-clinging and is called one who is liberated by wisdom….

Ānanda, when a monk attains these eight liberations (vimokkha) in forward order, in reverse order, and in forward-and-reverse order, entering them and emerging from them as and when, and for as long as he wishes, and by realizing for himself with direct knowledge, here and now enters upon and abides in the deliverance of mind and deliverance by wisdom that are taintless with the destruction of the taints, that monk is called ’one liberated both ways.’170

D. II. 70-71.

The Nine Abodes of Beings

Seven stations of consciousness (viññāṇa-ṭhiti):

  1. beings different in both body and perception;

  2. beings different in body, but equal in perception;

  3. beings equal in body, but different in perception;

  4. beings equal in body and in perception;

  5. beings in the sphere of boundless space;

  6. beings in the sphere of boundless consciousness;

  7. beings in the sphere of nothingness.

The two spheres (āyatana):

  1. realm of non-percipient beings (asaññīsattāyatana);

  2. realm of neither-perception-
    nor-non-perception (nevasaññānāsaññāyatana).

The seven stations of consciousness and two spheres are sometimes combined as the nine abodes of beings (sattāvāsa). The reference here to the stations of consciousness and two spheres is merely one way of teaching: it would be equally valid to substitute the five aggregates, which would cover the same subject.

The Buddha and Those Liberated by Wisdom

Bhikkhus, the Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, is liberated by disenchantment, by dispassion, by cessation, by non-clinging towards form (feeling, perception, volitional formations, consciousness), and is therefore called a Perfectly Enlightened One. So too, a bhikkhu liberated by wisdom is liberated by disenchantment, by dispassion, by cessation, by non-clinging towards form (feeling, perception, volitional formations, consciousness), and is therefore called one liberated by wisdom.

Therein, bhikkhus, what is the distinction, what is the disparity, what is the difference between the Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, and a bhikkhu liberated by wisdom?….

The Tathāgata, bhikkhus, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, is the originator of the path as yet unarisen, the producer of the path as yet unproduced, the declarer of the path as yet undeclared. He is the knower of the path, the one adept in the path, the one skilled in the path. And his disciples now dwell following that path and become joined with it afterwards.

This, bhikkhus, is the difference between the Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, and a bhikkhu liberated by wisdom.171 {475}

S. III. 65-6.

Factors of Stream-Entry

So far the discussion has focused on those who have reached the highest stage, of complete realization of Nibbāna. It is worthy, however, to recognize the many individuals, especially householders, who have ’entered the stream’ to Nibbāna or have caught a glimpse of Nibbāna. These individuals often have spouses and children, conducting their lives virtuously in the wider world.

In modern times, people’s understanding of and feeling for Nibbāna and enlightened beings has changed considerably. The view held by many people in the past of Nibbāna as a heavenly city of eternal bliss has changed into a view of extinction. Having less contact with Buddhist teachings and being influenced more by materialism has led people to see Nibbāna in a negative light, as something to be avoided. At the very least they see Nibbāna as something distant and without relevance to their lives. To address this problem, apart from instilling a correct understanding of Nibbāna, people should be encouraged to take special interest in the first stage of enlightenment – of stream-entry. The importance of stream-entry goes beyond an academic interest in Nibbāna and enlightened beings, but it often gets overlooked. The Buddha repeatedly taught:

Bhikkhus, those for whom you have compassion and those who are receptive – whether friends or colleagues, relatives or kinsmen – these you should exhort, settle and establish in the four factors of stream-entry.172

S. V. 364-5.

The life of a stream-enterer does not appear alien or frightening to contemporary people; rather, it appears admirable. Many of the stream-enterers at the time of the Buddha were lay disciples and were exemplary people. They were virtuous, led contented family lives, and were engaged in society, helping their community and the Buddhist religion. Although stream-enterers have reached a level of realization, they still possess a subtle degree of defilement. They still grieve and lament when encountering separation.173 They still have preferences and aversions like unawakened people, although these are attenuated and do not lead to serious misconduct. Their suffering is minor compared to the suffering they have abandoned. They are firmly established and secure in a happy, wholesome and faultless life. {882}

Prominent stream-enterers from the Buddha’s time include: Bimbisāra, King of Magadha, who offered Veḷuvana, the first Buddhist monastery, and who kept the weekly Observance Day precepts;174 Anāthapiṇḍika, founder of the famous monastery of Jetavana and incomparable benefactor to the monastic community and to the poor;175 Visākhā, foremost lay-woman supporter, who was renowned in the Kosala country – she was very active in promoting social welfare despite having twenty children of her own;176 Jīvaka-Komārabhacca, celebrated physician of King Bimbisāra, of the Buddha, and of the monastic community, who is revered by traditional medicine practitioners to this day;177 Nakulapitā and Nakulamātā, husband and wife who were utterly faithful to each other into old age and vowed to meet again in future lifetimes.178

The attribute of a stream-enterer that was mentioned earlier is the abandonment of the first three fetters (saṁyojana) – personality-view, doubt, and attachment to rules and religious practices. Freedom from these fetters focuses on the absence of certain qualities. There is, however, much emphasis in the scriptures on positive, active qualities. There are many of these active qualities, but essentially they can be incorporated into a group of five qualities: faith (saddhā), moral conduct (sīla), learning (suta), generosity (cāga), and wisdom (paññā). Below is a description of the attributes of stream-enterers, both in terms of active, present qualities and of abandoned qualities.179

Active Qualities

  1. Faith: stream-enterers possess a firm trust in truth, goodness, and the law of cause and effect. They have confidence in wisdom, that it is possible for human beings to overcome suffering by realizing the conditioned nature of reality. They have faith in the virtuous people who follow this path of wisdom and have a profound respect for the Triple Gem (ratanattaya).180 Their faith is secure and unshakeable because it is rooted in true understanding. {883}

  2. Moral Conduct: their behaviour through body and speech is appropriate and their mode of livelihood is honest and upright. Their conduct is ’free’; it is not enslaved by craving (see Note Free Conduct). They act in accord with truth to promote virtue, simplicity, dispassion, peace, and concentration. Generally speaking, this means following the five precepts, which is considered perfect moral conduct.

  3. Learning: ’those learned in spiritual knowledge’ (sutavant); they have studied the ’noble teachings’ (ariya-dhamma).181

  4. Generosity: they delight in giving and sharing; they relinquish what they have for others; they are not stingy.

  5. Wisdom: they possess the knowledge of a ’learner’ (sekha): they see clearly into the Four Noble Truths, Dependent Origination, and the three characteristics; they abandon all wrong view (micchā-diṭṭhi); they have no doubt concerning the Four Noble Truths; they know the world as it truly is.

  6. Social Action: stream-enterers abide by the ’virtues conducive to communal life’ (sārāṇīya-dhamma), which engender social unity and concord. They do this perfectly because they maintain the last virtue (of right view, below), which connects all the others. These virtues are as follows:

    1. Physical acts of lovingkindness (mettā-kāyakamma); mutual assistance and respect.

    2. Verbal acts of lovingkindness (mettā-vacīkamma); well-intentioned advice and instruction; well-mannered speech.

    3. Thoughts of lovingkindness (mettā-manokamma); thinking well of others; wishing to assist others; cheerful demeanour.

    4. Distributing lawful gains with others (sādhāraṇa-bhogitā).182

    5. Possessing a similar virtuous conduct as one’s companions (sīla-sāmaññatā); acting in an agreeable manner.

    6. Sharing right, noble views with one’s companions (diṭṭhi-sāmaññatā), which lead to the end of suffering.

    In the scriptural passages that describe ’noble views’ (of virtue 6) there are two special characteristics mentioned of stream-enterers:

    1. If they have transgressed the discipline (vinaya), it is their nature to confess this transgression without delay to their teacher or wise companions and to show restraint in the future. This restraint is similar to that shown by a young child who has touched a burning coal and immediately retracts his hand. {884}

    2. Although stream-enterers endeavour to assist their companions with various activities, they have a keen interest for training in the higher virtue, the higher mind, and the higher wisdom. Just as a cow with a new calf, while she grazes watches her calf, so too does a stream-enterer look to both the collective good and to personal progress on the path.183

  7. Happiness: stream-enterers have begun to experience transcendent happiness, which is profound and independent of material things. They have realized ’noble liberation’ (ariya-vimutti).

Free Conduct

’Free’ conduct is conduct from which one does not wish for personal gain, say worldly pleasure or a heavenly birth. Note that good conduct always includes right livelihood (sammā-ājīva) – see: VbhA. 88 = Vism. 511. Of the many Pali words describing the moral conduct of stream-enterers, there are two words in particular that have been introduced into the Thai language: ariyakanta-sīla: conduct cherished or praised by enlightened beings; and aparāmaṭṭha-sīla: conduct that has not been ’grasped onto’; conduct untainted by craving and fixed views; conduct that springs naturally from virtue – one need not attach to this conduct since no impurities exist that would lead to its transgression.

Abandoned Qualities

  1. Three Fetters:

    1. Sakkāya-diṭṭhi: the delusion in ’self’; the mistaken belief in a ’self’, which leads to selfishness, conflict, and suffering.

    2. Vicikicchā: doubts and uncertainties concerning, for example, the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sangha, and the training. These doubts prevent the mind from rousing energy and advancing on the path.

    3. Sīlabbata-parāmāsa: the misapplication of moral precepts, rules, observances, and traditions; these rules are not used as they are intended, as tools for developing such qualities as tranquillity and concentration. Instead, they are tainted by craving and fixed views, by seeking personal reward, enhancing self-stature, or blindly following others.

  2. Five Kinds of Selfishness (macchariya):184

    1. Possessiveness in regard to one’s dwelling (āvāsa-macchariya).

    2. Possessiveness in regard to one’s family, group, institution, etc.; partisanship (kula-macchariya).

    3. Possessiveness in regard to one’s wealth and good fortune (lābha-macchariya); preventing others from sharing these gains.

    4. Jealousy about one’s reputation and social standing (vaṇṇa-macchariya); displeasure when someone else competes for one’s gain or beauty; intolerance when hearing praise for others.

    5. Possessiveness in regard to the truth (dhamma-macchariya): possessiveness of knowledge and attainments; a fear that others will gain knowledge or attain realizations that match or excel one’s own.185

  3. Four Biases (agati):186

    1. Bias caused by desire (chandāgati).

    2. Bias caused by aversion (dosāgati). {885}

    3. Bias caused by delusion or stupidity (mohāgati).

    4. Bias caused by fear (bhayāgati).187

  4. Defilement: they have abandoned coarse or acute greed (rāga),188 hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha), which lead to an unhappy existence; stream-enterers do not commit any serious misdeeds which would lead to perdition; they are se-cure from rebirth in ’states of woe’ (apāya).189

  5. Suffering: they have quelled mental suffering and misfortune arising from transgressions of the five precepts; the suffering remaining for stream-enterers is minor.190

The active qualities and the abandoned qualities are two sides of the same coin. The abandonment of personality-view occurs with a profound understanding of the conditioned nature of reality. With the arising of this understanding, doubt vanishes and a solid confidence based on wisdom remains. At the same time, moral precepts are observed appropriately, leading to ’conduct pleasing to awakened beings’ (ariyakanta-sīla). The attachment to rules and observances ends. When a person develops generosity, selfishness wanes. Wisdom weakens the force of greed, hatred and delusion, which in turn frees a person from bias and clinging. The reduction of clinging leads to a release from suffering and an experience of great joy.

Stream-enterers are endowed with virtue and happiness. There is adequate virtue to ensure that they will not cause danger, distress or harm to anyone; on the contrary, their behaviour will benefit both themselves and others. This virtue is secure because it stems from thorough knowledge, which leads to a new way of seeing the world. As for happiness, stream-enterers have encountered a profound inner happiness that is of tremendous value. Although they still experience sensual or mundane pleasure, they are not carried away by this coarser form of happiness; they will not sacrifice the refined happiness to increase mundane happiness. Mundane happiness is balanced by transcendent happiness. This transcendent happiness is both a consequence of and a supporting factor for virtue; it is confirmation that a person will not regress and it supports further spiritual growth.

Stream-entry is of great value to the person who has realized it and to society. The Buddha assigned stream-entry to the first stage of enlightenment; it is the point where life as an awakened being begins. Stream-enterers are ’true disciples’; they are part of the ’noble community’ (ariya-saṅgha), which is the ’crucible’ in which humanity is refined. {886}

The Buddha greatly emphasized the importance of stream-entry and urged his disciples to set it as a goal for their lives. He said that the realization of stream-entry is better than going to heaven, being an emperor, or attaining jhāna. A teacher who is free from sensual lust due to the power of concentrative attainments and who leads his many disciples to ’merge with Brahma’ in heaven is considered excellent, but he is surpassed by the stream-enterer who still has sensual lust.191

Better than ruling the whole world,
Better than going to heaven,
Better than lordship over the universe,
Is reaching the stream of awakening.192

Dh. verse 178.

Those people who feel that Nibbāna is too distant to reach, too esoteric, too desolate or ethereal, should use the state of stream-entry as a bridge for understanding, because stream-entry is closer to their experience and easier to understand. At the same time, stream-entry is directly linked to Nibbāna, as it is an entry into the ’stream leading to Nibbāna’ or is a ’first glimpse’ (paṭhama-dassana) of Nibbāna.193 This dual-benefited approach is appropriate for contemporary people and still accords with the Buddha’s principles. Stream-entry should be the goal of individual practitioners and of the Buddhist community as a whole. In the meantime, one can reach an intermediate stage, as either a ’faith-devotee’ (saddhānusārī) or a ’truth-devotee’ (dhammānusārī, see Note Faith- and Truth-devotees), whose members are considered to ’have approached stream-entry’, ’dwell in the Path’, and ’progress without falling back’, and are sometimes included as ’noble’ (ariya) or ’true disciples’ (sāvaka-saṅgha).

Faith- and Truth-devotees

See the earlier section describing faith- and truth-devotees. Later, the term ’small stream-enterer’ (cūḷa-sotāpanna) was coined, referring to those disciples who have great love for and faith in the Buddha but whose wisdom is not yet developed (see: M. I. 141-2). The commentaries say this refers to those practitioners who have developed insight and reached ’knowledge of recognition’ (ñāta-pariññā) and the ’purity of transcending doubts’ (kaṅkhāvitaraṇa-visuddhi), and who have attained an ease and sense of security. See: MA. II. 120; VbhA. 254; Vism. 606; VismṬ.: Kaṅkhāvitaraṇavisuddhiniddesavaṇṇanā, Paccayapariggahakathāvaṇṇanā. See also the discussion on ’settled confidence’ (okappanā-saddhā) at: DA. II. 529; DA. III. 1029; MA. III. 326; AA. III. 257.

Those who hesitate or for some reason are delayed can dwell in the preparatory stages of ’virtuous person’ (kalyāṇa-puthujjana, see Note Virtuous Person), ’possessing beautiful qualities’,194 or ’learned noble disciple’ (sutavā ariyasāvaka).195 {887} These individuals have studied the ’noble teachings’ (ariya-dhamma); they have responded to the ’call’ of the truth. They have escaped from the ’jungle’ (of confusion) and recognized the starting point of the path. Although they may still falter, they possess the necessary factors to begin the journey. At the outset, these virtuous persons, whose faith, moral conduct, generosity and wisdom is not yet truly secure, can generate the quality of ’learning’ (suta) – of having ’listened’, of seeking knowledge – until they reach the stage of ’great learning’ (bahussuta), of being steadfast in knowledge.

Virtuous Person

This term is used frequently in the commentaries and is paired (contrasted) with andhabāla-puthujjana. In the Pali Canon it is found at: Nd. I. 131, 138, 232, 313-4, 477-8. In some locations it is spelled puthujjana-kalyāṇaka, e.g.: Ps. I. 176; Ps. II. 190, 193. In the Pali Canon andhabāla-puthujjana is only found at: S. III. 140 and Thag. verse 575; more often the term assutavā puthujjana is used, meaning ’unlearned, ordinary person’, e.g.: M. I. 1; Nd. II. 44; Ps. I. 149; Dhs. 182; Vbh. 364, 368, 375; this term is frequently used as a pair with sutavā ariyasāvaka. The commentaries include these ’virtuous persons’ (kalyāṇa-puthujjana) – especially those who make great effort in their spiritual practice and whose virtues indicate they will attain stream-entry imminently – as ’trainees’ (sekha), along with the other seven kinds of (awakened) trainees; these virtuous persons are included in this classification from the level of faith-devotees and truth-devotees.

Compare with the ’small stream-enterer’ mentioned at Note Faith- and Truth-devotees.

VinA. I. 242; MA. I. 40; VbhA. 329; AA. II. 147; ItA. I. 60; VinṬ.: Pārājikakaṇḍaṃ, Bhikkhupadabhājanīyavaṇṇanā. Pārājikakaṇḍaṃ, Bhikkhupadabhājanīyavaṇṇanā.>

It is precisely this learning (suta) that helps in the development of the noble path, beginning with a recognition of where the path begins.196 Indeed, correct understanding leads to faith, moral conduct, generosity and wisdom, because faith springs from such an understanding, followed by the energy to cultivate other virtues. These five qualities – learning, faith, morality, generosity and wisdom – are called the five mundane ’accomplishments’ (sampadā)197 or the five mundane ’treasures’ (vaḍḍhi).198 With the attainment of stream-entry, these five accomplishments or treasures become transcendent qualities.

A notable feature of stream-enterers is that they are not possessive of their material wealth:

[Stream-enterers] dwell at home with a mind devoid of the stain of stinginess, freely generous … delighting in giving and sharing…. Whatever there is in their family that is suitable for giving, all that they share unreservedly among those who are virtuous and of good character.

S. V. 351-2.

Because of this unbounded generosity, stream-enterers grow in virtue but may diminish in material wealth, and the Buddha even established a training rule as a result of this trait. If the bhikkhu sangha sees that members of a family have increasing faith but diminishing wealth, it can formally assign them the title of sekha (’learner’), regardless of whether they are actually enlightened or not. {888} (It is usually not possible to determine the level of realization in another. Here, behaviour is used as the standard.) If a monk who is not ill and has not been previously invited goes to members of this family and eats their food, he transgresses one of the training rules.199

From this example, one can discern two important principles. First, this training rule focuses on and declares a person’s inner, spiritual qualities for the benefit of the community, by dictating a standard of behaviour suitable to the circumstances. Second, it reveals how those people who are endowed with certain qualities – whose faith is correctly aligned with the Buddhist teachings, or who have realized the Dhamma as stream-enterers – do not seek reward for their good deeds. They do not chase after pleasurable sense objects for gratification. These questions do not arise for them: ’I have done good; why don’t good things come back to me?’ or: ’I have been generous; why am I not rich? I haven’t got what I wanted.’

Stream-enterers possess not only the physical eye, which sees material things, but they have developed the ’eye of Dhamma’ (dhamma-cakkhu)200 or the ’wisdom eye’, which sees clearly into the truth. They have complete confidence in the power of goodness, a confidence that can never be shaken regardless of unfavourable material circumstances. When they have clearly seen the truth and walked the virtuous path, no one including devas can tempt them to deviate. They are steadfast in virtue. The commentaries use the example of Anāthapiṇḍika to show the degree of a stream-enterer’s rectitude.201 They cannot be enticed or intimidated by devas; on the contrary, devas pay respect to them. {889}

Buddha’s Words on Stream-Enterers

Here are some passages from the Pali Canon concerning stream-enterers:

Epithets and Descriptions

Buddha: Sāriputta, this is said: ’The stream, the stream.’ What now, Sāriputta, is the stream?

Sāriputta: This Noble Eightfold Path, venerable sir, is the stream; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.

Buddha: Good, good, Sāriputta…. This is said: ’A stream-enterer, a stream-enterer.’ What now, Sāriputta, is a stream-enterer?

Sāriputta: One who is endowed with this Noble Eightfold Path, venerable sir, is called a stream-enterer: this venerable one of such a name and clan.

Buddha: Good, good, Sāriputta.

S. V. 347-8.

This noble disciple is called a person who is accomplished in view (diṭṭhi-sampanna), accomplished in vision (dassana-sampanna), who has arrived at this true Dhamma, who sees this true Dhamma, who possesses a trainee’s knowledge, a trainee’s true knowledge, who has entered the stream of the Dhamma, a noble one with penetrative wisdom, one who stands squarely before the door to the Deathless.202

S. II. 45, 58, 79-80.

A well-taught noble disciple (sutavā ariyasāvaka), who has encountered the noble ones and is skilled and disciplined in their Dhamma (ariya-dhamma), who has encountered true men (sappurisa) and is skilled and disciplined in their Dhamma.203

E.g.: M. I. 8, 135, 300, 310, 433; M. III. 17-18, 188-9; S. III. 3-4, 16-17, 42-6, 96, 102, 113-4, 137-8, 151, 164-5; S. IV. 287. 16-17, 42-6, 96, 102, 113-4, 137-8, 151, 164-5; S. IV. 287.>

They have seen, attained, realized and penetrated the Dhamma, passed beyond doubt, did away with confusion, and gained perfect confidence, and become independent of others in the Teacher’s dispensation.204 {890}

E.g.: Vin. I. 12, 16, 19, 20, 23, 37, 181, 225-6, 242, 248; Vin. II. 157, 192; D. I. 110, 148; D. II. 41; M. I. 379-80, 501; M. II. 145; A. IV. 186-7, 209-10; Ud. 49.

A variation of this passage is: One who carries out [the Buddha’s] instruction, who responds to his advice, who has crossed beyond doubt … in the Teacher’s dispensation.

M. I. 234, 491 (this refers also to once-returners)

Alternatively: One who is firmly established and at ease in this Dhamma and Discipline, who has crossed beyond doubt … in the Teacher’s dispensation.

A. III. 297; cf.: D. III. 39, 52; S. IV. 254.

A noble disciple who has arrived at the fruit, [realized the Dhamma], and understood the teaching.205

Vin. III. 189; A. III. 284.

One who has utter confidence in the Tathāgata, who sees the Deathless, who realizes the Deathless.206

A. III. 451.

No longer subject to perdition, bound [for deliverance], headed for enlightenment.

E.g.: Vin. III. 10; D. II. 92-3, 155; M. I. 34; S. V. 193; A. I. 231-2.

General Criteria

Householder [Anāthapiṇḍika], when five fearful retributions are stilled in a noble disciple, and he possesses the four factors of stream-entry, and he has clearly seen and thoroughly penetrated with wisdom the noble method, if he wishes he could by himself declare of himself: ’I am one finished with hell, finished with the animal realm, finished with the domain of ghosts, finished with the plane of misery, the bad destinations, the place of ruin. I am a stream-enterer, no longer bound to perdition, sure in destiny, with enlightenment as my destination….

  1. Stilling the five fearful retributions: On account of his behaviour, one who destroys life encounters fearful retribution in the present and in the future, and he experiences mental pain and anguish. For one who abstains from destroying life, this fearful retribution is stilled….

    One who steals encounters fearful retribution in the present and in the future…. For one who abstains from taking what is not given, this fearful retribution is stilled….

    One who engages in sexual misconduct encounters fearful retribution in the present and in the future…. For one who abstains from sexual misconduct, this fearful retribution is stilled….

    One who speaks falsely encounters fearful retribution in the present and in the future…. For one who abstains from false speech, this fearful retribution is stilled….

    One who indulges in wine, liquor and intoxicants encounters fearful retribution in the present and in the future…. For one who abstains from intoxicants, this fearful retribution is stilled…. {891}

  2. Possessing the Four Factors of Stream-Entry:207 Here, the noble disciple possesses firm confidence with wisdom in the Buddha thus: ’The Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be trained, teacher of devas and humans, the Awakened One, the Blessed One.’ (See Note Unshakeable Faith)

    He possesses firm confidence with wisdom in the Dhamma thus: ’The Dhamma is well-expounded by the Blessed One, directly visible, timeless, inviting to come and see, to be brought within, to be experienced individually by the wise.’

    He possesses firm confidence with wisdom in the Sangha thus: ’The community of the Blessed One’s disciples is practising well, practising uprightly, practising correctly, practising properly; that is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of individuals – this community of the Blessed One’s disciples is worthy of gifts, worthy of offerings, worthy of hospitality, worthy of respect, the unsurpassed field of merit for the world.’

    He possesses the virtues dear to the noble ones – unbroken, untorn, unblemished, untainted, free, praised by the wise, unambiguous (see Note Irreproachable), and leading to concentration.

  3. To see and penetrate with wisdom the noble method: The noble disciple carefully analyzes Dependent Origination thus: ’When this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this, that arises. When this does not exist, that does not come to be; with the cessation of this, that ceases. That is, with ignorance as condition, volitional formations come to be; with volitional formations as condition, consciousness comes to be…. Such is the origin of this whole mass of suffering. But with the remainderless elimination and cessation of ignorance comes cessation of volitional formations; with the cessation of volitional formations comes cessation of consciousness…. Such is the cessation of this whole mass of suffering. {892}

    When these five fearful retributions are stilled in a noble disciple, and he possesses the four factors of stream-entry, and he has clearly seen and thoroughly penetrated with wisdom the noble method, if he wishes he could by himself declare of himself… ’I am a stream-enterer … with enlightenment as my destination.’208

S. II. 68-70; S. V. 387-9.

Unshakeable Faith

Aveccappasāda is sometimes translated as ’unshakeable faith’. I have used the translation ’firm confidence with wisdom’ to expand the meaning and to show the relationship of faith to wisdom. Wisdom is an inherent component to a balanced spiritual practice that expresses itself with ever greater clarity, until one no longer needs to refer to the term ’faith’. At least one should understand that faith here is based on wisdom. Avecca can be translated as ’knowing’, ’examining’, and ’penetrating with wisdom’; see: D. III. 158; Kh. 4; Sn. 40, 66; (explained at: DA. III. 933; KhA. 185; SnA. I. 277, 368). Compare with avicca in the Rūpa Siddhi Pakaraṇa [16/17], and with anuvicca at A. V. 88 (explained at AA. IV. 98). For commentarial passages on this interpretation of aveccappasāda, see: AA. II. 333; AA. III. 363; DA. II. 544. A concise definition equates aveccappasāda with acalappasāda, e.g.: DA. II. 646; DA. III. 1021; SA. II. 74; SA. III. 90, 276; AA. I. 396; AA. V. 44. See also the relationship between aveccappasāda and the abandonment of the sixteen upakkilesa at M. I. 37.

Irreproachable

Following DA. II. 537; AA. III. 345; VinṬ.: Parivāra-ṭīkā, Antarapeyyālaṃ, Katipucchāvāravaṇṇanā, etc., the term aparāmaṭṭha can be translated two ways: first, as ’irreproachable’: a person’s conduct is flawless and no one can find true fault with it. Second, a person’s conduct is not defiled by craving and fixed views – it is pure and practised according to how moral conduct should be practised – it has no ambiguity or hidden agenda, e.g. to gain personal advantage or to attain status. This conduct is cherished by enlightened beings (ariyakanta-sīla); the Buddha said this is the supreme mode of conduct (A. III. 36).

Of these three criteria, the four factors of stream-entry are direct attributes of stream-enterers. The remaining two criteria are a cause and an effect of these four factors, respectively. Understanding the ’noble method’ (the law of Dependent Origination) is a cause for these factors of stream-entry, because when wisdom sees this law of nature, faith is stable and based on reason, and conduct is in accord with moral principles. The first criterion is an effect, because when faith and conduct reach this stage, the ’fearful retributions’ cease. Therefore, the Pali Canon generally refers solely to the four factors of stream-entry, as the constant attribute of stream-enterers:

Bhikkhus, a noble disciple who possesses four things is a stream-enterer, no longer bound to the lower world…. A noble disciple possesses firm confidence with wisdom in the Buddha … the Dhamma … the Sangha…. He possesses the virtues dear to the noble ones … leading to concentration.209

E.g. from S. V. 343 to S. V. 405.

The four factors of stream-entry are sometimes called a ’Dhamma-lens’ or ’Dhamma-mirror’ (dhammādāsa) for stream-enterers to use for inspection and self-assessment.210 They are sometimes called an ’ocean of merit’, ’ocean of good fortune’, and ’food for joy’.211 At other times they are referred to as supreme abidings for living happily in the present (diṭṭhadhamma-sukhavihāra).212 Virtuous conduct is sometimes expanded into the three pure physical actions and the four pure verbal actions, together referred to as the seven essential qualities (saddhamma), and the factors of stream-entry are in this case called the four ’desirable states’ (ākaṅkhiya-ṭhāna).213 In some passages the factors of stream-entry are divided into the ten ’right states’ (sammatta): the Eightfold Path plus right knowledge (sammā-ñāṇa) and right deliverance (sammā-vimutti).214 {893}

An alternative presentation of the four factors of stream-entry replaces moral conduct (sīla) with generosity (cāga):

A noble disciple who possesses four things is a stream-enterer…. A noble disciple possesses firm confidence with wisdom in the Buddha … the Dhamma … the Sangha…. He dwells at home devoid of the stain of stinginess, freely generous, openhanded, delighting in relinquishment, one devoted to the requests of others, delighting in giving and sharing….

Whatever there is in the family that is suitable for giving, all that is shared unreservedly among those who are virtuous and of good character.

S. V. 351-2, 396-7; S. IV. 304.

All of the attributes of stream-enterers fall under the qualities of faith, moral conduct, learning, generosity and wisdom. For this reason, the Buddha frequently encouraged his disciples to develop these qualities and to use them as a measuring stick for the progress of awakened beings. Likewise, he suggested they be used to measure the progress of all his disciples, including those not yet enlightened:

Bhikkhus, growing in five areas of growth, a male noble disciple grows with a noble growth (ariyā vaḍḍhi), and he acquires the essence, acquires the best, of this bodily existence. What are the five? He grows in faith, conduct, learning, generosity and wisdom.

When he grows in faith, conduct, learning, generosity and wisdom, the virtuous and knowledgeable male disciple acquires right here the essence for himself.

Bhikkhus, growing in five areas of growth, a woman noble disciple grows with a noble growth, and she acquires the essence, acquires the best, of this bodily existence. What are the five? She grows in faith, conduct, learning, generosity and wisdom.

When she grows in faith, conduct, learning, generosity and wisdom, the virtuous and knowledgeable woman disciple acquires right here the essence for herself.215

A. III. 80; S. IV. 250; cf.: A. V. 137.

A bhikkhu possesses faith, conduct, learning, generosity and wisdom. He thinks: ’Oh, that by realizing for myself with direct knowledge, I may here and now enter upon and abide in the deliverance of mind and deliverance by wisdom that are taintless with the destruction of the taints!’ And by realizing for himself with direct knowledge, he here and now enters upon and abides in the deliverance of mind and deliverance by wisdom that are taintless with the destruction of the taints.216

M. III. 103.

Even if a person has not mastered these five qualities, recollecting someone else who has mastered them brings ease of mind and acts as an incentive for spiritual practice: {894}

A bhikkhunī hears thus: ’The bhikkhunī named so-and-so has died; the Blessed One has declared of her: “She was established in final knowledge [of arahantship].” ’ And she has either seen that sister for herself or heard it said of her: ’That sister’s moral conduct was thus, her qualities were thus, her wisdom was thus, her virtues were thus, her deliverance was thus.’ Recollecting her faith, conduct, learning, generosity, and wisdom, she directs her mind to such a state. In this way a bhikkhunī has a happy abiding.217

M. I. 466.

Bhikkhus, I do not praise standing still, not to mention declining in wholesome qualities. I praise only growth in wholesome qualities – not standing still, not declining.

And what is the decline of wholesome qualities, not standing still, not growth? Here, whatever qualities a monk possesses of faith, conduct, learning, generosity, and discerning wisdom, these qualities do not remain constant and are not developed. This I call the decline of wholesome qualities, not the standing still, not the growth…. And what is the standing still of wholesome qualities…? Here, whatever qualities a monk possesses of faith … wisdom, these qualities neither decrease nor increase…. And what is the growth of wholesome qualities…? Here, whatever qualities a monk possesses of faith … wisdom, these qualities do not remain constant nor do they decline.218

A. V. 96.

There are several instances when the Buddha presented variant definitions for some of these five qualities:

  1. Faith (saddhā): apart from the firm confidence with wisdom in the three ’jewels’ as found in the four factors of stream-entry, the Buddha often presented another definition:

    And what is the accomplishment in faith? Here, a noble disciple has faith; he has faith in the enlightenment of the Tathāgata thus: ’The Blessed One is an arahant … the Awakened One, the Blessed One.’219 {895}

    E.g.: A. II. 66; A. III. 53; A. IV. 284, 288, 324-5, 363-4.

  2. Moral conduct (sīla): on many occasions, the Buddha defined moral conduct very simply, as the five precepts:

    Here, a noble disciple abstains from the destruction of life, from stealing, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquors and intoxicants which are a basis for negligence.220

    From the surrounding material it is fair to say that these two passages on faith and conduct refer to ’noble’ disciples who have not yet reached a stage of awakening, as will become clear from additional quotations below.221

  3. Learning (suta): in addition to having encountered the noble ones and being skilled in the noble teaching (ariya-dhamma), as mentioned earlier, the Buddha gave an alternative definition:

    And what is the treasure of learning? Here, a noble disciple is one of great knowledge, and bears in mind and retains what he has learned. In these teachings, beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle, and beautiful in the end, which in spirit and letter proclaim the absolutely perfected and purified holy life, he is erudite, he remembers them, recites them, is well-versed in them, and penetrates them with vision.222

    A. III. 53.

  4. Generosity (cāga): there are normally no variant definitions from that presented earlier.

  5. Wisdom (paññā): apart from an understanding of Dependent Origination, the Buddha presented definitions that can also be applied to ’noble’ disciples who are not yet awakened:

    And what is the treasure of wisdom? Here, a noble disciple is wise, he possesses wisdom that penetrates arising and passing away, which is noble and pierces defilement, leading to the complete destruction of suffering.223

    A. III. 53.

    And what is accomplishment in wisdom? One who dwells with a heart overcome by covetousness and greed, by ill-will, by sloth and torpor, by restlessness and worry, and by doubt does what he should avoid and fails in his duty; as a consequence his fame and happiness diminish. When a noble disciple thus understands that these qualities are defilements of the mind, he abandons them. When he has abandoned them, he is called a noble disciple of great wisdom, of vast wisdom, one who sees the path of prosperity, one endowed with wisdom. This is called accomplishment in wisdom.224 {896}

    A. II. 67.

One passage from the Pali Canon enumerates six qualities of a stream-enterer:

By possessing six qualities, the householder Tapussa [and twenty other lay disciples] has reached certainty about the Tathāgata, has seen the Deathless, has realized the Deathless, and conducts his life accordingly. He possesses firm confidence with wisdom in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha. He possesses noble moral conduct, noble knowledge, and noble deliverance.

A. III. 451-2.

Abandoned Qualities and Qualities of Fruition

(Trans.: for additional quotations, see Appendix 5.)

One who is perfect in view (diṭṭhi-sampanna)225 has abandoned six things. He has abandoned fixed personality view, doubt, attachment to rules and vows, lust that leads to ruin, anger that leads to ruin, and delusion that leads to ruin…. It is impossible that one perfect in view could give rise to these six things.

There are these six impossibilities (abhabbaṭṭhāna): it is impossible that one who is perfect in view will live disrespectfully and without regard for the Teacher226 … the Dhamma … the Sangha … the training…. It is impossible that he will cling to that which should not be clung to … It is impossible that he will give rise to an eighth birth.227

There are also these six impossibilities: it is impossible that one who is perfect in view will believe that any conditioned phenomenon is permanent … is [essentially] pleasurable … is a ’self’…. It is impossible that he will perform a heinous crime (anantariya-kamma)228… that he will believe purity is gained through auspicious rituals … that he will seek one truly worthy of offerings (dakkhiṇeyya) outside of this teaching. {898}

There are also these six impossibilities: it is impossible that one who is perfect in view will perform matricide … will perform patricide … will kill an arahant … will with evil intent draw the blood of the Tathāgata … will split the Sangha … will follow another teacher.229

There are also these six impossibilities: it is impossible that one who is perfect in view will believe that pleasure and pain are self-created … are created by an external agent … are both self-created and created by an external agent … that pleasure and pain arise randomly, not self-created … arise randomly, not created by an external agent … arise randomly, neither self-created nor created by an external agent…. And what is the cause [for this non-belief]? One perfect in view clearly sees both cause and the produced effect.230

A. III. 438-40.

One who can abandon these five qualities is capable of realizing stream-entry: selfishness231 in regard to one’s dwelling, selfishness in regard to one’s family, selfishness in regard to one’s wealth, selfishness in regard to one’s social standing, and selfishness in regard to truth.232

A. III. 272-3.

Shortly before the First Recitation, after the Buddha’s death, four hundred and ninety-nine arahants were selected to attend along with Ven. Ānanda, who was still a stream-enterer. He was invited because he had spent a long time learning the Dhammavinaya directly from the Buddha, and because he was a stream-enterer:

It is not possible that he (Ven. Ānanda) could be biased due to likes, dislikes, delusion, or fear.

Vin. II. 285.

Mahānāma the Sakyan approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said to him: ’Venerable Sir, this city of Kapilavatthu is rich and prosperous, populous, crowded, with congested roads. In the evening, when I am entering Kapilavatthu after visiting the Blessed One or the bhikkhus who are dear to the heart, I come across a bustle of elephants, horses, chariots, carts and people. On that occasion, my mindfulness regarding the Buddha becomes muddled, my mindfulness regarding the Dhamma becomes muddled, my mindfulness regarding the Sangha becomes muddled. The thought then occurs to me: “If at this moment I should die, what would be my destination, what would be my future state (abhisamparāya)?” ’

’Do not be afraid, Mahānāma! Do not be afraid, Mahānāma! Your death will not be a bad one, your passing away will not be a bad one. When a person’s mind has been refined over a long time by faith, conduct, learning, generosity and wisdom, his body, consisting of form, composed of the four elements, born from mother and father, built up from rice and pudding, requiring scrubbing and massaging,233 subject to impermanence, to breaking apart and dispersal, is devoured by crows, vultures, hawks, dogs, jackals and various creatures. {899} But his mind, refined over a long time by faith, conduct, learning, generosity and wisdom – that is elevated and reaches distinction…. Do not be afraid, Mahānāma! Do not be afraid, Mahānāma! Your death will not be a bad one, your passing away will not be a bad one. A noble disciple who possesses four things234 inclines towards Nibbāna, is devoted to Nibbāna….’

S. V. 369-71.

There are these six blessings in realizing the fruit of stream-entry: one is firm in the good Dhamma; one is unable to fall back; one’s suffering is limited; one is endowed with exceptional knowledge; one has clearly seen into causes and the effects of causes.235

A. III. 442.

The person who is accomplished in view, freed from the vast plain of misery, understands as it really is: ’This is suffering….’ ’This is the origin of suffering….’ ’This is the end of suffering….’ ’This is the path leading to the end of suffering.’ Therefore, you should endeavour to [understand as it really is]: ’This is suffering….’ ’This is the path leading to the end of suffering.’ (See Note The Plane of Misery)

S. V. 442.

’Bhikkhus, suppose that the great ocean would dry up and be destroyed except for two or three drops of water. What do you think, which is more: the water in the great ocean that has dried up and been destroyed or the two or three drops that remain?’

’Venerable sir, the water in the great ocean that has dried up and been destroyed is more. The two or three drops of water that remain are trifling. They do not amount to a hundredth part, or a thousandth part, or a hundred thousandth part of the water in the great ocean that has dried up and been destroyed.’

’So too, bhikkhus, for a noble disciple, a person accomplished in view who has reached the truth, the suffering that has been destroyed and eliminated is more, while that which remains is trifling. It does not amount to a hundredth part, or a thousandth part, or a hundred thousandth part … as there is a maximum of seven more lives. Of such great benefit is the realization of the Dhamma, of such great benefit is it to obtain the Dhamma eye.’ (See Note The Suffering Which Remains) {900}

The bliss of worldly pleasures and the bliss of heaven equal not one-sixteenth of the bliss of craving’s end.236

Ud. 11.

’Bhikkhus, suppose that a man would place seven stones the size of mung beans next to Mount Sineru. What do you think, which is more: the seven stones the size of mung beans placed by that man or Mount Sineru?’

’Venerable sir, Mount Sineru is more….’

’So too, bhikkhus, the extraordinary achievements of ascetics, brahmins, wanderers, and followers of other sects do not amount to a hundredth part, or a thousandth part, or a hundred thousandth part of the achievement of a noble disciple, a person accomplished in view. So great in achievement is a person accomplished in view, so great in direct knowledge.’

S. II. 139.

The Plane of Misery

The beginning of this sutta offers a comparison to demonstrate the vastness of the plane of misery (apāya). At S. V. 342, there is a comparison between a world-turning monarch and a stream-enterer: a world-turning monarch, who is ruler of the four continents and after death experiences the delights of heaven, but is not a stream-enterer, is not safe from the hell realms or other planes of misery. A stream-enterer, however, even if he lives on almsfood and is dressed in threadbare robes, is safe from these planes of misery.

The Suffering Which Remains

This is one of ten suttas comparing the suffering that remains for a stream-enterer with the suffering that has been eliminated (S. II. 133-9).

Other comparisons include dirt under a fingernail with the entire earth, water on the tip of a blade of grass with water in a lake hundreds of miles long and hundreds of miles deep, seven tiny balls of clay with the entire earth, and seven tiny pieces of gravel with the Himalayas. The same ten suttas (plus two more) occur at S. V. 457-65, which differ only with the final section:

A noble disciple, one accomplished in view who has reached the truth, understands as it really is: ’This is suffering’…. ’This is the way leading to the end of suffering’…. The suffering that remains is trifling. Compared to the former mass of suffering that has been destroyed and eliminated, the latter is incalculable, does not bear comparison, does not amount even to a fraction, as there is a maximum of seven more lives. Therefore, you should endeavour to [understand as it really is]: ’This is suffering….’










Attributes and Conduct before Attaining Stream-Entry

Compare the qualities here of faith, moral conduct, generosity and wisdom with these same qualities described earlier in passages directly relating to stream-enterers:

One in whom the four factors of stream-entry are completely and totally absent is an ’outsider, one who stands among the worldlings.’237

S. V. 397.

King Mahānāma: Venerable sir, in what way is one a lay follower?

Buddha: When one has gone for refuge to the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha, one is then a lay follower.

Mahānāma: In what way, venerable sir, is a lay follower accomplished in moral conduct?

Buddha: When a lay follower abstains from the destruction of life, from taking what is not given, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquor and intoxicants that are a basis for negligence, the lay follower is accomplished in moral conduct.

Mahānāma: In what way, venerable sir, is a lay follower accomplished in faith?

Buddha: Here, a lay follower is a person of faith; he has faith in the enlightenment of the Tathāgata thus: ’The Blessed One is an arahant … the Awakened One, the Blessed One. In that way a lay follower is accomplished in faith.

Mahānāma: In what way, venerable sir, is a lay follower accomplished in generosity?

Buddha: Here, a lay follower dwells at home devoid of the stain of stinginess … delighting in giving and sharing. In that way a lay follower is accomplished in generosity.

Mahānāma: In what way, venerable sir, is a lay follower accomplished in wisdom?

Buddha: Here, a noble disciple is wise; he possesses wisdom that … penetrates the truth, leading to the complete destruction of suffering. In that way a lay follower is accomplished in wisdom.238 {901}

S. V. 395; cf.: A. IV. 220-23.

Let us have another look at faith devotees (saddhānusārī) and truth devotees (dhammānusārī), who rank just below stream-enterers:

Bhikkhus, the eye (ear, nose, tongue, body, mind, the six sense-objects, the six kinds of consciousness … the five aggregates) is impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. One who trusts these teachings and is devoted to them thus is called a faith-devotee….

One for whom these teachings are accepted after being investigated to a sufficient degree with wisdom in called a truth-devotee….239

S. III. 225-8.

There is another group of four factors of stream-entry, but here, rather than referring to the qualities of a stream-enterer, they are modes of spiritual practice that lead to stream-entry:

Buddha: Sāriputta, this is said: ’A factor for stream-entry.’ What now, is a factor for stream-entry?

Sāriputta: Association with superior persons (sappurisa-saṁseva) is a factor for stream-entry. Hearing the teachings of superior persons (saddhamma-savana) is a factor for stream-entry. Proper reflection (yoniso-manasikāra) is a factor for stream-entry. A comprehensive spiritual practice (dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti) is a factor for stream-entry.

S. V. 347.

Bhikkhus, there are these four factors for stream-entry: association with superior persons, hearing the teachings of superior persons, proper reflection, and a comprehensive spiritual practice. (See Note Factors for Right View)

S. V. 404; D. III. 227.

Bhikkhus, these four things, when developed and cultivated, lead to the realization of the fruit of stream-entry. What four? Association with superior persons, hearing the teachings of superior persons, proper reflection, and a comprehensive spiritual practice.

S. V. 410-11; referred to at Ps. II. 189.

These four qualities lead not only to stream-entry but to all levels of wisdom, ending in the realization of arahantship. They may be referred to by many other names, but because the Buddha emphasized them in this context they are called the ’factors for stream-entry’.240 {902}

Factors for Right View

The first three factors are factors for right view (sammā-diṭṭhi). Sappurisa-saṁseva = kalyāṇamittatā; saddhamma-savana = wholesome ’learning from others’ (parato-ghosa). These factors for right view are explained in the latter half of Buddhadhamma.

Dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti is gradual, systematic and correct practice: preliminary spiritual practices are conducive to subsequent accomplishments. A correct practice of sīla, for example, leads to the realization of Nibbāna; one does not follow rules blindly or act from fixed views.

The Cūḷaniddesa (Nd. II. 70) offers examples of preliminary practices (e.g.: moral conduct, sense restraint, moderation in eating, and wakefulness) as well as subsequent accomplishments (or ’primary teachings’), e.g.: the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, the Eightfold Path (i.e. the Thirty-Seven Factors of Enlightenment – bodhipakkhiya-dhamma).

One should observe the preliminary practices with a goal in mind, to act in harmony with and be conducive to later stages of practice.

Additional Points on the Attributes of Stream-Enterers

Let us look more closely at the five qualities of faith, moral conduct, learning, generosity and wisdom, which incorporate the four factors of stream-entry (sotāpattiyaṅga). The Buddha emphasized these qualities and used them as benchmarks for progress in relation to ’noble disciples’, both before the realization of stream-entry and after. Special attention should be given to the quality of faith: why did the Buddha mention faith every time he discussed this stage of practice, even though Buddhism considers wisdom to be the supreme quality for spiritual development?

These five qualities are referred to as the five ’accomplishments’ (sampadā), the five ’treasures’ (dhana), and the five qualities of ’growth’ (vaḍḍhi):

Faith (saddhā)

Trust and conviction resulting from reasoned and wise contemplation. There are three aspects to faith:

  1. Faith in the Buddha: the existence of the Buddha is proof that through their own efforts and by mindfulness and wisdom human beings are able to realize the highest truth. Human beings can be trained and cultivated, both in regard to proper conduct vis-à-vis their external environment and in regard to spiritual qualities. They are able to develop wisdom to the point that they escape from the oppression by mental defilement and make an end of suffering, realizing supreme deliverance. With this realization human beings become excellent and self-reliant; they need not petition a divinity (e.g. devas, Māra or Brahma) to intercede on their behalf. By recognizing the exceptional virtues of the Buddha who has reached this realization, a person with faith should cultivate these virtues in him- or herself and try to reach the truth that the Buddha has made known.

  2. Faith in the Dhamma – the Truth or the highest good – which the Buddha discovered and revealed. {903} This truth is stable, certain and autonomous; it is a natural law of cause and effect. It does not rely on the appearance of a Buddha; it is neutral and impartial to all beings. It invites investigation and spiritual practice. Every person who has developed himself adequately and has sufficient wisdom can realize this truth. This realization leads to liberation and the end of suffering.

  3. Faith in the Sangha, the model community. This community acts as proof that every person has the potential to realize the highest truth realized by the Buddha. The community only comes into existence, however, when individuals allow the truth to manifest through spiritual practice. This community is comprised of people with different levels of maturity and development, but is unified by the adherence to the same standards: they have the Dhamma as their focus and standard of measurement and they are the vessels through which the Dhamma manifests. One should treasure and participate in the virtue of this community, because the Sangha acts more than any other community to preserve the Dhamma in the world; it is the source for goodness and wellbeing to spread in the world.

The three aspects of faith are: a trust that truth – a natural law of cause and effect – exists; human beings are capable of realizing this truth; and there are exceptional people who have reached this truth and share it with others. Those who have confidence in this truth and in the human potential to realize it will strive to generate the results, especially through proper action. They believe in the causal link between action and the fruits of action, and this belief leads to steadfast ethical behaviour and a solid understanding. They do not rely primarily on external forces for help. And they trust that together people can build a virtuous or ideal community, which is comprised of individuals who have trained themselves and realized the truth of the Buddha. By reflecting on causality, a person has a firm conviction that the Buddha was truly awakened, that his teachings accord with the truth, and that it is of utmost benefit to join the community of enlightened disciples who have followed this teaching.

Moral Conduct (sīla)

A moral code: the entire system of conduct covering both private behaviour and one’s interaction with society through physical actions and speech, including one’s livelihood. This code of conduct is established to assist in the attainment of the highest good. Its aim is to prevent unskilful actions and promote good actions by teaching people to see the relationship between their deeds and their environment. It brings about stability, both personal and social, and is a foundation for higher spiritual practice. It helps to perfect physical and verbal conduct and emphasizes harmonious coexistence. {904} Such a harmonious social environment allows each individual to live at peace and to train him or herself in order to reach higher states of realization.

For the general public, the basic code of conduct that supports wellbeing is the five precepts: to not violate living creatures, to not violate others’ property, to not violate loving relationships, to not violate truth by speaking falsely or aggressively, and to not impair mindfulness and clear comprehension (sampajañña) by using addictive substances.241 Certain communities establish more intricate and refined codes of conduct, for example the eight precepts, the ten precepts, and the two hundred and twenty-seven precepts, for an ordered discipline and to reach the goal of that specific community.

There are several attributes of Buddhist morality:

  1. it creates a conducive external environment for spiritual practice leading to the highest goal;

  2. it promotes peace and harmony within a community, so that each individual can pursue his or her activities in comfort; and

  3. the restraint of moral conduct leads to self-discipline and a reduction of mental impurity. Moral conduct makes a person receptive to wholesome qualities. In particular it is a basis for concentration.242

Although there are levels of moral conduct higher than the five precepts, all desirable codes of conduct required for Dhamma practice (referred to as ’conduct cherished by the noble ones’ – ariyakanta-sīla) share the same essence and have the same criteria: they are followed neither out of desire for pleasurable rewards, nor out of attachment, nor out of fixed views on morality, nor by blindly following social customs. They are followed by understanding the true purpose of moral precepts. For lay Buddhists who have this proper perspective, observing the five precepts is enough to lead to stream-entry.

Learning (suta)

’That which is heard’; knowledge gained from listening, reading, studying, news media, or any other sources; knowledge of the ’noble teachings’ (ariya-dhamma) – the teachings of enlightened beings – which reveal the highest way of life and the path to awakening. Knowledge gained for careers and general activities in the world (for example in the arts and sciences) is insufficient to become a ’noble disciple’. {905} Worldly knowledge varies between different individuals and it is not always harmless. Although it is developed to solve problems and to generate happiness, often it has the opposite desired effect and creates all sorts of complications. Therefore it is not the same as the learning referred to here.

The knowledge of a noble disciple is always beneficial. It is the knowledge that every person needs to lead a good life. It enables people to apply professional knowledge to promote personal and social wellbeing. It prevents harm and solves problems in a truly effective way. And most importantly, it alone can lead an ordinary person to become enlightened. For professional knowledge to be an effective tool for solving problems it must be aligned with the knowledge of the noble teachings. All these forms of knowledge, however, including the knowledge of noble teachings, resemble at first a storeroom containing raw materials. The knowledge has not yet been applied to truly settle one’s affairs. After acquiring knowledge a person assimilates it and makes it his own, as a particular view or belief. But for the knowledge to be truly effective, it must become an instrument for wisdom, at which point it develops into analytical and discriminative knowledge and is integrated into systematic, comprehensive practice (dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti).

Generosity (cāga)

True giving; outward relinquishment by giving material things and inward relinquishment by abandoning greed; an absence of stinginess. Noble disciples do not seek reward (material gain, prestige, happiness or heaven) in exchange for their gifts. The expression in the suttas, ’delighting in giving and sharing’ (dānasaṁvibhāga-rata), indicates that noble disciples derive joy from the very act of giving. They do not experience the suffering or disappointment from such thoughts as: ’I have given but received nothing in return.’ Noble disciples are endowed with lovingkindness and compassion. Without the urge to acquire or to possess, the heart becomes expansive and sympathy for others arises. One clearly sees other people’s hardship and suffering, and naturally inclines to generosity. One finds joy in giving, by alleviating others’ suffering and making them happy. The goodness in the act of giving becomes the reward. By giving, the world becomes a happier place. {906} In addition, generosity purifies the heart, reduces mental impurities, and leads a person closer to the goal of Buddhism.243 As Ven. Sāriputta said:

Wise persons do not give gifts for worldly happiness, nor do they give gifts for a better rebirth. Wise persons give gifts to remove defilement, to reach the state of no renewed existence.244

Nd. I. 424-5.

Besides generous assistance in a wider context, noble disciples are generous with their fellow companions. They willingly relinquish their personal belongings for public consumption, to benefit the virtuous members of their community.

Because noble disciples are ’superior persons’ (sappurisa), they give the ’gifts of a good person’ (sappurisa-dāna). (See Note Qualities of Giving)

One of these qualities is to give respectfully; a noble disciple values the recipient, the gift, and the act of giving. He gives willingly and without resentment; no matter how low the recipient’s social standing, he does not hold the person in contempt, acting with kindness and the intention to help.245

Qualities of Giving

These qualities consider the attributes of the donor, over and above the needs of the recipient. There are several different groups of these qualities:

(A) Group of five:

  1. gives respectfully;

  2. gives with humility;

  3. gives with his own hand;

  4. gives a pure gift (or does not give leftovers);

  5. gives with the knowledge of the fruits of giving (āgamana-diṭṭhika) – the commentaries explain this as knowing the fruits of giving and believing in kamma and the results of kamma; M. III. 24; A. III. 171-2; A. IV. 392-3;

(B) Group of five:

  1. gives with faith;

  2. gives respectfully;

  3. gives at the proper time;

  4. gives with a generous heart, with no pride (this is the commentarial explanation; this quality is also translated as ’gives with a heart of service’);

  5. gives without troubling oneself or others (e.g. by elevating oneself and denigrating others); A. III. 173;

(C) Group of eight:

  1. gives clean gifts;

  2. gives choice things;

  3. gives at the proper time;

  4. gives appropriate things;

  5. gives with discretion;

  6. gives regularly;

  7. the mind is bright at the moment of giving;

  8. after giving, the mind is delighted; A. IV. 244.

Wisdom (paññā)

Comprehensive knowledge; clear knowing; discriminative knowledge; reasoned analysis. A noble disciple distinguishes between true and false, good and bad, right and wrong, appropriate and inappropriate, benefit and harm. It is a practical knowledge; a person understands causality and understands how to relate to conditions in order to solve problems. This knowledge applies specifically to human suffering: it is used to alleviate suffering and to live a good life. {907} There are many ways to refer to this wisdom, including knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, knowledge of Dependent Origination, and knowledge free from the five hindrances (nīvaraṇa). The definition of the ’accomplishment of wisdom’ (paññā-sampadā) as an attribute of a noble disciple is: ’Wisdom that penetrates arising and passing away, which is noble and pierces defilement, leading to the complete destruction of suffering.’246

No matter what level of expertise a person has in worldly knowledge, as a prominent politician, brilliant businessman, clever inventor, or skilled researcher, for example, the knowledge of a noble disciple is indispensable for every person in solving life’s problems and living honourably.

Learning (suta) can be a conditioning factor for wisdom: it provides information and expands a person’s understanding. It is not only Dhamma learning that supports wisdom; worldly knowledge, especially life experience, can foster an understanding of the truth. A person skilled in reflection (yoniso-manasikāra) gains an understanding of the world and of life from applying technical or professional knowledge. The decisive factor for spiritual progress, however, is wisdom. Some people are highly educated but are unable to reflect; they therefore do not grow wise and do not truly benefit from their knowledge. Some people have only a meagre level of formal education but are very wise; their wise reflection enables them to solve problems. For a wise person, increased knowledge of any kind is used to their advantage. Because a wise person can still prosper despite a shortage of formal learning, there are many occasions where the number of attributes of noble disciples is reduced from five to four, leaving faith, conduct, generosity and wisdom.

Wisdom fulfils not only learning (suta); it also validates all the other factors of a noble disciple. Wisdom ensures that faith is correct, not erring towards gullibility. Wisdom leads to suitable moral conduct, which is praised by awakened beings and free from clinging to rules and practices. Wisdom brings about true relinquishment, because as long as one does not truly understand the world and phenomena, and one has not discovered a more refined happiness, it is natural that one takes pleasure in sensuality. With a lack of wisdom it is difficult to avoid being preoccupied by worldly pleasures and to be generous without wishing for some form of sense pleasure or other reward. Wisdom thus unites the other factors; it is the essential factor of a noble disciple and is the aim of each successive level of spiritual practice.

To sum up, there are four primary virtues of a noble disciple: {908}

  1. Saddhā: faith in the wisdom, virtue, and perseverance of human beings; these qualities promote a realization of the truth and the highest good as taught by the Buddha and his disciples. This faith fosters the building of a virtuous society, established on principles of truth.

  2. Sīla: self-discipline, which leads to an appropriate behaviour and relationship to others and to one’s environment. This conduct supports the blossoming of virtue in an individual and fosters social harmony.

  3. Cāga: relinquishment, which reduces selfishness and prepares a person to assist others.

  4. Paññā: wisdom; penetrative knowledge of things as they truly are, as following laws of nature, as arising and passing away according to causes and conditions. This knowledge accompanied by a free mind promotes a proper relationship to things and an appropriate, balanced conduct. A person then knows how to apply or develop the other virtues in a suitable way.

Learning (suta) acquired by any form – by instruction, encouragement, advice, or study – supports the development of the other virtues and brings about greater success, but the required amount of learning and the level of success depends on a person’s ability to reflect with wisdom.

Let us return to the first virtue of faith (saddhā) and examine how it is a crucial factor at the beginning of spiritual practice. Normally, faith is divided into three groups: faith in the Buddha, faith in the Dhamma, and faith in the Sangha. Occasionally, a single, precise definition is presented, especially when describing the faith of a noble disciple before the realization of stream-entry: [A person] has faith in the enlightenment of the Tathāgata thus: ’The Blessed One is an arahant … the Awakened One.’ This form of faith is called ’faith in the Tathāgata’s awakening’ (tathāgatabodhi-saddhā, see Note Faith in the Tathāgata’s Awakening). It is faith in the wisdom of the Buddha, who is considered the archetype, representative, or pioneer for all human beings.

The Buddha’s awakening confirms that all human beings are capable of realizing the truth and reaching the highest good through mindfulness, wisdom and disciplined effort. The Buddha compared himself to a baby chick who is the first to peck its way through the eggshell of ignorance,247 and to a discoverer of an ancient path who reveals this path to humanity.248 Faith in the Buddha’s awakening is thus equivalent to faith in the capability and wisdom of human beings. {909} Or more succinctly, it is self-confidence or faith in oneself. This confidence is not selfish belief or pride, but rather confidence in being human or an objective trust in humanity. One believes in the human potential for wisdom, that every person can reach the highest goal through spiritual training and satisfy the greatest of human aspirations.249 The Buddha is the symbol of self-belief; he was the first person to assert this human potential and the first person to not attribute enlightenment to a divine or supernatural power.

Faith in the Tathāgata’s Awakening

Alternatively, ’faith in the wisdom of the discoverer of Truth’. It is noteworthy that the Buddha uses the term Tathāgata here to refer to himself, because there are many epithets for the Buddha and each one emphasizes different qualities.

The use of the term Tathāgata here is consistent with the passage where the Buddha describes the laws of nature, which exist autonomously and are not dependent on the arising of Tathāgatas; a Tathāgata is merely the discoverer and revealer of these truths (see: A. I. 286; S. II. 25).

On many occasions the term Tathāgata is translated as a ’being’ (e.g.: M. I. 426; S. IV. 395; explained, for example, at MA. III. 142). Interested scholars may compare bodhi here with the concept of Buddhahood in the Mahayana tradition.

Effectively, faith in the Buddha’s awakening encompasses faith in the Triple Gem: there is trust that human beings can develop wisdom to the point of resolving even the most refined difficulties in the heart, and they are able to reach the highest liberation and complete happiness, just as the Buddha was able to accomplish; there is trust that these principles of practice and the highest goal are aspects of truth based on natural laws; and there is trust that there are people who have reached this goal, who comprise a noble community, have verified the truth, propagate the Dhamma, spread blessings, and are fully prepared to assist others in joining this noble community.

Although Buddhism advocates wisdom, faith is an essential quality at the beginning stages of practice, before a person realizes his or her potential and perfects wisdom. Faith here is different from what is commonly understood and should not be mistaken for blind faith; it is faith in wisdom, linked with wisdom, and leads to wisdom.

There are two important aspects to faith in the Triple Gem or to faith in the Buddha’s awakening. First, the entire teaching in Buddhism, either of the highest goal or of modes of practice, rests on the principle that human beings are capable of following in the Buddha’s footsteps and realizing the truth through their own effort and wisdom. There exists no external, supreme source of power surpassing that of human beings. If this principle were to be false, then the entire Buddhist system of practice and the stated goal would be meaningless and void. {910} Second, if a Buddhist disciple does not have trust in this human potential, he will be unable to progress along the path of Buddhism. How would he be able to devote himself to practice? In fact, he would not be a true disciple of the Buddha. Faith in the Buddha’s awakening is thus an essential quality for a Buddhist.250

Stream-entry is a valid goal for Buddhist practitioners and reaching this essential stage of awakening should be encouraged. The related factors of faith, conduct, learning, generosity, and wisdom, which the Buddha repeatedly taught, and when developed can be considered equivalent to stream-entry, should also be emphasized. These five factors can be developed gradually, both before the realization of stream-entry and after, and they are relevant to the present time.

Today’s society is in need of faith that is based on reason not credulity, and of trust in the human potential for reaching the highest good.

Society requires an understanding of the true spirit of moral conduct, as connected to other spiritual qualities; this conduct then guides and protects society.

In today’s society there is an abundance of learning and a profusion of information, but it often appears to create increased confusion and difficulty for people. Society requires an education in noble principles that reveals the essential meaning of life and points out ways of disentanglement from problems; such learning leads to self-sufficiency and suitable action. {911}

Today’s society faces increasingly dire economic problems, which require self-sacrifice, generosity and mutual assistance coming from a pure heart. The earth no longer has the resources to sustain people’s unbridled greed. People need to discover the happiness that comes from giving and sharing and that leads to social harmony.

Contemporary society is full of people who take pride in their intelligence because they have received a formal education. They are able to accomplish extraordinary things and wield a certain power over nature and the environment. People have become expert at worldly knowledge to the extent that their power is exceptional. But because they lack transcendent wisdom, they have only begun to penetrate the mysteries of the universe. As a result of pride, people risk falling into a pit created by their own intelligence; they meet with obstruction on the physical level and frustration in their hearts. To solve these problems, people require noble wisdom.251

Looking at the state of the world today and the widespread behaviour of people, there are two outstanding qualities of a stream-enterer that should be emphasized as guidelines for living:

First, stream-enterers have a firm understanding of the law of cause and effect. Their trust in wisdom is adequately strong to expect successful results from actions based on mindfulness and balanced effort, and in line with causality.252 They do not rely on fate or petition a supernatural force from outside to intercede on their behalf. However, because their wisdom is not yet complete, their confidence is not self-sustaining. They still rely on someone else who has reached the truth and leads the way. This is faith in the Buddha’s awakening or faith in the Triple Gem. This is the highest and purest level of faith; thereafter wisdom is perfected and replaces faith. The wisdom of stream-enterers is not yet absolute; their wisdom is reinforced by faith.

Second, stream-enterers are firmly established on the path to awakening. Their understanding of the world is sufficient to not be influenced by defilement nor to overrate worldly conditions (loka-dhamma).253 They have begun to experience transcendent joy and freedom, which brings about an appreciation of the truth. They develop chanda: enthusiasm and love for truth. They desire truth so much that there is no chance of them returning to a fascination with material pleasures. Unlike ordinary people, they seek no reward – of material gain, honour, fame, praise, pleasure or heaven – from their virtuous conduct (sīla) or from acts of generosity (cāga). Their moral conduct is steadfast; they are not discouraged if they do not reap these aforementioned rewards. {912}

This Dhammapada verse illustrates the life of a stream-enterer:

Fear-stricken people in large numbers take refuge in mountains,
Forests and sacred groves and trees.
But no such refuge is safe,
No such refuge is supreme.
Not by resorting to such a refuge
Is one freed from all misery.

One who goes for refuge to the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha;
Who sees clearly with wisdom:
Suffering, the origin of suffering,
The transcendence of suffering,
And the Noble Eightfold Path leading to the end of suffering.
This, indeed, is a safe refuge;
This, indeed, is the refuge supreme.
By reaching such a refuge,
One is freed from all misery.

Dh. verses 188-92.

Let us return to the Buddha’s frequent teaching:

Bhikkhus, those for whom you have compassion and those who are receptive – whether friends or colleagues, relatives or kinsmen – these you should exhort, settle and establish in the four factors of stream-entry.

Leaders of a family, an organization, or a business who really deserve the title of leader and fulfil their responsibility are able to foster the five qualities of stream-entry in their relatives, dependents and employees:

Supported by the Himalayas, a great tree grows in these five growths: it grows in branches and leaves, in inner bark, in outer bark, in sapwood, and in hardwood. So too, supported by a devout family leader, members of a family grow in these five growths: they grow in faith, moral conduct, learning, generosity, and wisdom.254

A. III. 44.

Besides encouraging general assistance to family and friends, the Buddha gave a specific teaching concerning the factors of stream-entry in reference to repaying the goodness of one’s parents:

I declare, O monks, that there are two persons whose goodness it is difficult to repay. What two? One’s mother and father. Even if one were to carry one’s mother on one shoulder and one’s father on the other, attending to them, until one reached the age of a centenarian, reached the age of one hundred years; and if one were to care for them by kneading, massaging, and bathing, and they would even void their excrements there – even by that one would not do right by one’s parents, one would not repay them. Even if one were to establish one’s parents as the supreme lords and rulers over this earth rich in the seven treasures, one would not do right by one’s parents, one would not repay them. What is the reason for this? Parents have been of great service to their children: they have nurtured, fed, and introduced them to the world.

But one who encourages his unbelieving parents, settles and establishes them in faith; who encourages his immoral parents, settles and establishes them in moral conduct; who encourages his stingy parents, settles and establishes them in generosity; who encourages his ignorant parents, settles and establishes them in wisdom – such a one does right by his parents, he repays them.

A. I. 61-2.

Appendix 1: Sīlabbata-parāmāsa

Sīlabbata-parāmāsa is one of the most misunderstood of the ten fetters. {422} In the Suttanipāta, the Buddha often talks about the wrong view of certain people who believe that purity is gained solely by following moral precepts and religious practices.255 The term ’purity’ (suddhi) here refers to the goal of the religious life, equivalent to liberation (vimutti).256 This wrong view may manifest in observing precepts and practices in order to go to heaven, as revealed in this common passage from the suttas: He has such a view as this: ’By this moral precept or austerity or asceticism or celibate life I shall become some kind of god or divine being.’257 Noble disciples – the enlightened ones and true sages – do not hold this view and have ’let go’ of moral precepts and religious practices.258 There are many passages in the Mahāniddesa and Cūḷaniddesa explaining this attachment to precepts and observances. For example:

Some brahmins and ascetics equate purity with morality. They believe that purity, immaculateness, liberation, deliverance, and freedom come solely from moral precepts, abstinence (saññama), restraint (saṁvara) and obedience…. Some brahmins and ascetics equate purity with religious austerities. They observe the practice of behaving like elephants (hatthi-vata), like horses (assa-vata), like cows (go-vata) … they observe the rites of Brahma, of devas, of praying to the four directions….259

Nd. I. 88-9. Cf.: Nd. I. 92-3, 188, 310; Nd. II. 11, 28.

This explanation helps clarify the definition of sīlabbata-parāmāsa from the Abhidhamma: Sīlabbata-parāmāsa is this manner of view and belief of ascetics and brahmins outside (of this Dhammavinaya): ’Purity stems from keeping moral precepts and austerities.’260 The phrase ’outside (of this Dhammavinaya) can lead some people to wrongly understand that sīlabbata-parāmāsa is found only in other religions. This passage from the Abhidhamma is merely an example; it can be reworded as: beliefs like those of other (non-Buddhist) ascetics and brahmins. In fact, one need not add these words ’other’ or ’outside’ at all. The passages in the Suttanipāta, Mahāniddesa,261 or commentaries262 do not use these words. For if a person clings to this wrong view, even if one is Buddhist, one is ’outside’.

Besides being a deep-rooted misunderstanding, this blind faith in moral precepts and religious practices reveals an inherent craving, for example a wish to go to heaven.

Sīlabbata-parāmāsa is composed of the words sīla (morality, moral precept), vata (austerity, religious practice), and parāmāsa (extreme attachment). The words sīla and vata are explained in the Mahāniddesa, as defined above.263 The Mahāniddesa elaborates by saying that some things are both sīla and vata, while others are vata but not sīla. For example, in the bhikkhu discipline (Vinaya) those aspects having to do with self-control (saṁyama or saññama), restraint (saṁvara), and moral integrity are sīla. Those aspects having to do with vows or observances are vata. Examples of practices that are vata but not sīla are the ascetic practices (dhutaṅga-vata), e.g. vowing to live in the forest, eat only food gathered on almsround, and wear rag-robes.264 In regard to monks of other traditions who keep for example the ’dog practice’ (kukkura-vata) in order to be reborn in heaven, the commentaries say that sīla is the behaviour mimicking dogs and vata the particular routines of such a practice.265 In regard to Buddhists, an example of sīla is keeping the five precepts and of vata is keeping the ascetic practices.266 In regard to bhikkhus, the commentaries occasionally say that the four kinds of pure morality (pārisuddhi-sīla) are sīla and the thirteen ascetic practices are vata.267

Parāmāsa is sometimes translated as ’caress’ or ’fondle’ but its general meaning in the Pali Canon is ’seize’ or ’take hold’, e.g.: a monk ’grabs hold’ of a layman;268 Dīghāvu ’holds’ the king of Kāsi’s head to kill him;269 the Buddha is not ’attached’ to what he knows;270 one should not ’take’ that which is not freely given;271 ’seizing’ rods and swords to fight.272 {423} The definition of ’caress’ probably comes from the Jātaka stories describing the birth of Suvaṇṇasāma, Kusa and Maṇḍavya, where a holy man touches the mothers’ navels.273 Perhaps it is also influenced by Vin. I. 121 which defines parāmasanā as ’stroke’ or ’rub’ (ito cito ca sañcopanā). The principal meaning of parāmāsa, however, is clearly defined as: sabhāvaṁ atikkamitvā parato āmasatīti parāmāso – ’to grasp at, exceed, and deviate from reality’. One overreaches, by exceeding or distorting the truth, making more of something than it actually is.274 For example, one may mistakenly believe something to be permanent which is in fact fleeting. Precepts and religious practices are established as a foundation for spiritual development; but one may miss the point and believe that liberation comes merely from keeping these rules and practices.

Sīlabbata-parāmāsa is a belief or view (diṭṭhi).275 One may ask how this fetter is distinct from the first fetter – sakkāya-diṭṭhi – which is also a belief. The commentaries explain that sakkāya-diṭṭhi, the firm belief in ’self’, is a view inherent in most people and does not require logical reasoning or transmission from others. Sīlabbata-parāmāsa has an external or social context; it is related to what a person considers right and wrong conduct.276 Because it pertains to spiritual practice, the commentaries thus designate sīlabbata-parāmāsa under the category of ’self-mortification’ (attakilamathānuyoga), one of the two extremes to be avoided by Buddhists in order to walk the Middle Way.277

Parāmāsa is often found in the past participle form as parāmaṭṭha (’touched’, ’grasped’), and has the meaning of defiled or tainted. Something is tainted because it has been ’smeared’ by craving: one keeps rules and precepts to gain a reward (wealth, fame, praise, bliss, etc.) or to be reborn in whatever state one’s religion professes. Pure morality is called aparāmaṭṭha: it is not stained by craving. One follows moral standards with wisdom and independence; one is not enslaved to craving and fixed views. This is the sīla of stream-enterers.278

A further consequence of this attachment to rules and practices is the debate between people about who is right and wrong. It can generate arrogance and conceit, looking down on those who are deemed less strict or less ethical.279

Sīlabbata-parāmāsa results from people unquestioningly following others; a symptom of the blind leading the blind. Some people see rules and practices as sacred or magical rites or ceremonies. Others follow the rules unwillingly, seeing them as arbitrary commandments; they do not see the harm in transgressing the rules nor do they see the benefits of restraint. Others again seek good luck or sensual pleasures by observing these rules and practices.

Keeping moral precepts and observing religious duties correctly is not sīlabbata-parāmāsa. One knows their true purpose, that they should be used for spiritual training, as a basis for concentration, for peace and simplicity, and to promote goodness in society. One sees clearly the harm in oppression of others. One follows moral precepts willingly by having insight into their benefits, feeling shame in doing wrong, and generating enthusiasm for the good. Eventually true moral conduct becomes automatic and natural; no training or compulsion is required because the defilements that cause evil are gone.

Non-violence is one of the six devotions practised by arahants, not because they cling to rules and practices but because they are free from greed, hatred and delusion.280 {424} At first, moral behaviour is normal behaviour because of habit and the strength of one’s determination. Later, moral behaviour is normal behaviour because the causes for evil and unwholesomeness have all been eliminated. Someone who keeps moral precepts correctly is called sīlavatūpapanna (’endowed with ethics’)281 or sīlabbata-sampanna (’perfect in morality’).282 To say that purity is gained by moral precepts is inaccurate, but to say purity is gained without moral precepts is also inaccurate.283 Religious observances and ceremonies may not be a required part of spiritual practice, especially for the laity, but pure (aparāmaṭṭha) morality – not diverging from truth and unblemished by craving – is an essential basis for liberation.284

Here is a way of measuring conduct: if by keeping precepts and religious practices unwholesome qualities increase and wholesome qualities wane then that conduct is incorrect; but if wholesome qualities increase and unwholesome qualities wane then that conduct will bear good fruit.285

As long as one is unawakened (puthujjana) there will be some degree of clinging to and mistaken application of moral precepts and religious practices, commensurate with one’s share of craving, wrong view, and delusion. At least one will need to check and counter certain impulses. For stream-enterers coarse defilements have been quelled and they are thus called ’perfect in moral conduct’.286 They uphold rules and observances in just the right way, neither too laxly nor too strictly.

{383} In the Tipiṭaka, although there are many passages in which the Buddha mentions as a group the four aspects of an arahant’s complete development – i.e. he or she has gained self-mastery in body (bhāvita-kāya), virtue (bhāvita-sīla), mind (bhāvita-citta), and wisdom (bhāvita-paññā) – there is no single passage in which these four factors are defined together. There exist only cases in which one or a few of these factors are defined in specific circumstances, for example by correcting a misunderstanding about one or more of these aspects of development. This may be because at the Buddha’s time his disciples were familiar with these terms and there was thus no need to define them. (The passages containing definitions tend to be answers or explanations the Buddha gave to non-Buddhists, for example to wanderers and ascetics of other traditions.)

Similarly, the four kinds of development (bhāvanā) – which lead to self-mastery (bhāvita) – are not found together as a group in the Tipiṭaka, unless one counts the Burmese edition, which includes the Peṭakopadesa. This text includes the passage: ’By way of the Eightfold Path one also obtains the four kinds of development: moral development (sīla-bhāvanā), physical development (kāya-bhāvanā), mental development (citta-bhāvanā), and wisdom development (paññā-bhāvanā).’287

Other passages in the Tipiṭaka mention at most three kinds of development. Following on from the threefold training, the Saṅgīti Sutta arranges three kinds of development as follows: ’The threefold training entails the training in higher virtue (adhisīla-sikkhā), the training in higher mind (adhicitta-sikkhā), and the training in higher wisdom (adhipaññā-sikkhā); the three kinds of development entail physical development, mental development, and wisdom development’.288 Note also that the term sīla-bhāvanā does not appear at all in the Tipiṭaka (apart from the Peṭakopadesa mentioned above). The term sīla-bhāvanā thus only exists inherent in the term bhāvita-sīla.

In contrast, the commentaries frequently mention all four aspects of self-mastery (bhāvita) and all four kinds of development (bhāvanā) as unified groups, and provide a fair number of explanations for these terms. These explanations, however, sometimes conflict with one another.

The terms citta-bhāvanā and paññā-bhāvanā tend not to be a problem and are well understood. The confusion and contradictions tend to arise in regard to the terms kāya-bhāvanā and sīla-bhāvanā (and in extension to the terms bhāvita-kāya and bhāvita-sīla).

The Peṭakopadesa (cited above) seems to give definitions variant from other texts for all four kinds of development (bhāvanā). Note the following passage: ’In respect to the four kinds of development, by way of right effort and right livelihood the body is developed, by way of right speech and right effort moral conduct is developed, by way of right thought and right concentration the mind is developed, by way of right view and right mindfulness wisdom is developed. By way of these four kinds of development, these two factors come to fulfilment: the mind (citta) and wisdom (paññā).’289

Let us compare this passage with the Nettipakaraṇa (which is also included in the Burmese Tipiṭaka). Here, the four kinds of development (bhāvanā) are not explained, but the fourfold self-mastery (bhāvita), which is inherently connected to the kinds of development, is explained. One will see that here the explanation contradicts that of the Peṭakopadesa: ’Of the three groups (khandha), the body of morality (sīla-khandha) and the body of concentration (samādhi-khandha) constitute tranquillity meditation (samatha), while the body of wisdom (paññā-khandha) constitutes insight meditation (vipassanā)…. That monk is developed in body, developed in moral conduct, developed in mind, developed in wisdom. When the body is developed, two factors are developed: right action and right effort; when moral conduct is developed, two factors are developed: right speech and right livelihood; when the mind is developed, two factors are developed: right mindfulness and right concentration; when wisdom is developed, two factors are developed: right view and right thought.’290 {384}

Note that the terms bhāvanā and bhāvita can also be translated as cultivation / (fully) cultivated or training / (fully) trained. The scriptures use the term vaḍḍhanā as a synonym for these terms, for example: bhāvita-kāyoti vaḍḍhita-kāyo291 and bhāvita-sīloti vaḍḍhita-sīlo.292

Most of the commentarial explanations conform with the Nettipakaraṇa, which seem to be at odds with the Peṭakopadesa. Take for example a passage from the commentaries of the Nettipakaraṇa itself: ’With the fulfilment of excellent moral conduct (abhisamācārika-sīla), one is developed in body (bhāvita-kāya); with the fulfilment of moral conduct fundamental to the holy life (ādibrahmacariyaka-sīla), one is developed in virtue (bhāvita-sīla). Moreover, by way of sense restraint (indriya-saṁvara) one is developed in the body (of the five doorways) – bhāvita-(pañcadvāra)-kāya; by way of other forms of moral conduct one is developed in virtue.’293

The commentaries to the Aṅguttara Nikāya offer a similar yet distinctive explanation: ’By way of physical development (kāya-bhāvanā), that is, by contemplation of the body (kāyānupassanā), one is called developed in body (bhāvita-kāya)…. Moreover, by developing the five doorways (pañcadvāra) one is developed in body. The term ’developed in body’ refers here to virtue as sense restraint (indriyasaṁvara-sīla); the term ’developed in moral conduct’ (bhāvita-sīla) refers to the three remaining kinds of virtue.’294 Other commentaries and sub-commentaries contain infrequent explanations of the terms bhāvanā and bhāvita. For example, the commentaries to the Saṁyutta Nikāya states: ’The term bhāvita-kāya refers to the body endowed with the five doorways.’295 This passage is consistent with the two commentarial passages cited above.

Furthermore, some commentarial and sub-commentarial passages emphasize that the term bhāvanā in the context of the four kinds of development does not refer to spiritual practice currently engaged in – to practice applied in order to reach the goal – but rather to the practice of arahants which is completed or has already reached the goal. For example: ’It is development by the fact of having been developed.’296

Appendix 3: Learned Ones (sutavant), Noble Disciples (ariya-sāvaka), and Noble Dhamma (ariya-dhamma)

{913} The expression ’learned noble disciple’ (sutavant or sutavā ariyasāvaka) is always paired with the expression ’untaught ordinary person’ (assutavā puthujjana), which is explained as: An untaught ordinary person, who has not seen the noble ones and is unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma, who has not seen true men, and is unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma. The commentaries explain ’untaught ordinary person’ as a ’blind’ or ’foolish’ person (andha-puthujjana or andhabāla-puthujjana). The expression ’has not seen the noble ones’ means that a person has not regularly sought out and visited the noble ones, and even if he has met them he does not know how to derive benefit from this meeting. ’Seen’ here means seeing with wisdom, not merely seeing with the physical eye.

In the Pali Canon the term ’noble Dhamma’ (ariya-dhamma) can refer to the ten wholesome courses of action (kusala-kammapatha),297 to the ten qualities of an adept (asekha-dhamma; also known as the ten right states – sammatta: the Eightfold Path plus right knowledge – sammā-ñāṇa – and right liberation – sammā-vimutti),298 or simply to the five precepts.299 The commentaries explaining these canonical references give a broad definition to ariya-dhamma, as meaning ’various spiritual qualities’, for example the Foundations of Mindfulness (satipaṭṭhāna).

Regarding the term ariya (or ariya-puggala), these commentaries say that it usually refers to the Buddha, Pacceka-Buddhas, and Buddhist disciples, but where ariya is paired with sappurisa (’true men’) it refers solely to the Buddha, while sappurisa (or sappurisa-jana) refers to Pacceka-Buddhas and Buddhist disciples.300

Appendix 4: Incentives for Giving

There are several occasions when the Buddha discussed the incentives for people to offer gifts:

  1. To give for gain; to give out of attachment; to give believing one will receive an identical gift in return after death;

  2. to give out of the belief that giving is good;

  3. to give out of the consideration that one’s ancestors gave gifts and one should not break this family tradition;

  4. to give thinking: ’I can provide for myself but these people are unable to provide for themselves; when I can provide for myself, it is unsuitable to not give to those who cannot provide for themselves’;

  5. to give with the thought: ’This gift of mine is like the great sacrifices of the ascetics from the past’; one seeks prestige;

  6. to give thinking that joy and delight will arise as a consequence;

  7. to give in order to equip the mind or to improve the quality of the mind; one believes that giving is a way to develop the mind, that giving softens the heart of both the donor and recipient, that giving is a form of renunciation, and that giving fosters lovingkindness and compassion; one gives with the thought: ’May those who suffer find happiness through this gift’; technically speaking, this last form of giving is a support for tranquillity and insight.301

A. IV. 59-63.

  1. To give because of circumstances; a recipient happens to arrive;

  2. to give out of fear;

  3. to give as repayment;

  4. to give hoping the recipient will return the favour; to wish for a reward;

  5. to give out of the belief that giving is good;

  6. to give thinking: ’I can provide for myself but these people are unable to provide for themselves….’;

  7. to give with the thought that by giving one’s fame will spread;

  8. to give in order to equip and improve the mind.

D. III. 258; A. IV. 236.

  1. To give out of affection;

  2. to give out of anger;

  3. to give out of confusion;

  4. to give out of fear;

  5. to give out of the consideration that one’s ancestors gave gifts….;

  6. to give with the thought that by giving one will be reborn in heaven;

  7. to give thinking that joy and delight will arise as a consequence;

  8. to give in order to equip the mind or to improve the quality of the mind.

A. IV. 236-7.

The sutta of the first group finishes with a description of the states of existence where donors with these various motivations will be reborn, but this description accords with the natural consequences of these actions. The states of rebirth are not necessarily connected to the wishes of the donor. {914}

Appendix 5: Additional Scriptural Quotations

Factors of Stream-entry – Abandoned Qualities

When there is form, by depending on form, by clinging to form, such a view as this arises: ’This is mine, this I am, this is my self….’

Such a view as this arises: ’That which is the self is the world; having passed away, I will be permanent, stable, eternal, not subject to change….’302

Such a view as this arises: ’If I am not, then it will not be for me; I will not be, and it will not be for me….’303

Such a view as this arises: ’Gifts bear no fruit, offerings (yiṭṭha) bear no fruit, acts of worship (huta) bear no fruit. There is no fruit or result of good and bad actions; no this world, no other world; no mother, no father; no beings who are reborn spontaneously; no ascetics and brahmins faring and practising rightly in the world who, having realized this world and the other world for themselves by direct knowledge, make them known to others. We consist of the four great elements. When one dies, earth returns to the earth, water returns to water, fire returns to fire, and air returns to air; the faculties are dispersed into space. Four men with the bier as fifth carry away the corpse. Footprints appear as far as the charnel ground; the bones whiten; burnt offerings end with ashes. Giving is a doctrine of fools. The words of those who teach a doctrine of spiritual gain are empty, false and incoherent. Fools and the wise are alike destroyed and perish with the breakup of the body; after death they do not exist….’304

Such a view as this arises: ’When one acts or makes others act, slaughters or makes others slaughter, torments or makes others inflict torment, inflicts sorrow or makes others inflict sorrow, oppresses or makes others inflict oppression, harasses or makes others inflict harassment; when one destroys life, steals, burgles, plunders, breaks into houses, ambushes highways, seduces another’s wife, tells lies – no evil is done by the doer. If, with a razor-rimmed disc, one were to make the living beings of this earth into one mass of flesh, into one heap of flesh, because of this there would be no evil and no outcome of evil. If one were to go along the right bank of the Ganges killing, slaughtering and tormenting, and making others kill, slaughter and inflict torment, because of this there would be no evil and no outcome of evil. If one were to go along the left bank of the Ganges giving gifts and making offerings, and having others give and offer, because of this there would be no merit and no outcome of merit. By giving, by self-discipline, by self-restraint, by speaking truth, there is no merit and no outcome of merit….’305

Such a view as this arises: ’There is no cause or condition for the defilement of beings; beings are defiled without cause or condition. There is no cause or condition for the purification of beings; beings are purified without cause or condition. There is no fruit of action, no fruit of effort, no fruit of energy, no fruit of perseverance. All beings, all sentient beings, all living beings, all creatures, are without power, strength and energy; shaped by destiny, circumstance, and nature, they experience pleasure and pain in the six classes of human beings….’306 {897}

Such a view as this arises: ’There are these seven bodies that are unmade, unformed, uncreated, without a creator, barren, steady as mountain peaks, steady as pillars. They do not move or change; they do impede each other or cause pleasure and pain to each other. These seven bodies are: the earth-body, the water-body, the fire-body, the air-body, pleasure, pain, and the soul (jīva). Even one who cuts off another’s head with a sharp sword does not deprive anyone of life; the sword merely passes through the space between the seven bodies. There are approximately one million four hundred thousand modes of generation, six thousand kinds of kamma … sixty-two sub-aeons, six classes of human beings, eight stages in the life of man … three thousand hells … eight hundred and forty thousand great aeons through which the foolish and wise roam and wander, after which they will alike make an end to suffering. In this round of rebirth, there is none of this: “By this conduct, this vow, this austerity or this holy life I will make unripened kamma ripen or eradicate ripened kamma by repeatedly experiencing it.” In this round of rebirth, there is no such method, like ladling out a measured amount, of ending pleasure and pain. There is no shortening or extending, no raising or decreasing. Just as, when a ball of string is thrown, it unwinds completely, so too the foolish and the wise wander, making an end to suffering….’307

Such views as these arise: ’The world is eternal … the world is not eternal … the world is finite … the world is infinite … the soul and the body are the same … the soul is one thing; the body another … the Tathāgata exists after death … the Tathāgata does not exist after death … the Tathāgata both exists and does not exist after death … the Tathāgata neither exists nor does not exist after death….’308

’What do you think, bhikkhus, is physical form … (feeling, perception, volitional formations, consciousness) … permanent or impermanent? That which is seen, heard, sensed, cognized, attained, sought after, and contemplated by the mind: is that permanent or impermanent?’

’Impermanent, venerable sir.’

’Is that which is impermanent oppressive or easeful?’

’Oppressive, venerable sir.’

’But without clinging to what is impermanent, oppressive, and subject to change, could such a view309 as that arise?’

’No, venerable sir.’

’When a noble disciple has abandoned doubt in these six cases,310 and when he has abandoned doubt about suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading to the cessation of suffering, this noble disciple is called a stream-enterer, no longer bound to perdition, sure in destiny, with enlightenment as his destination.’311

S. III. 202-16.

Appendix 6: List of Foremost Disciples

This list of foremost disciples includes only the bhikkhus (there are separate lists for bhikkhunis, laymen, and laywomen); here the names of the monks are mentioned along with the prominent quality attributed to them:

  • Aññākoṇḍañña (having gone forth for a long time and having experienced the events of the Buddha’s life from the beginning – rattaññū);

  • Sāriputta (great wisdom);

  • Mahā Moggallāna (psychic powers);

  • Mahā Kassapa (ascetic practices – dhutaṅga);

  • Anuruddha (the ’divine eye’ – dibba-cakkhu);

  • Bhaddiya (those born in a high family);

  • Lakuṇṭakabhaddiya (melodious voice);

  • Piṇḍolabhāradvāja (uttering the ’lion’s roar’ – sīhanāda);

  • Puṇṇa-Mantānīputta (speaking the Dhamma);

  • Mahākaccāyana (elucidating brief teachings into detail);

  • Cullapanthaka (creating a ’psychically formed body’ – manomaya kāya);

  • Cullapanthaka (competent in ’turning away’ from saṁsāra by way of the citta: ceto-vivaṭṭa);

  • Mahāpanthaka (competent in ’turning away’ from saṁsāra through wisdom: paññā-vivaṭṭa);

  • Subhūti (living remote and in peace: araṇavihārī);

  • Subhūti (worthy of offerings);

  • Revata Khadiravaniya (living in the forest);

  • Kaṅkhārevata (adept at jhāna);

  • Soṇa-Kolivisa (resolute energy);

  • Soṇa-Kuṭikaṇṇa (beautiful speech);

  • Sīvalī (receiving gifts);

  • Vakkali (liberated by faith);

  • Rāhula (love of training);

  • Raṭṭhapāla (ordaining out of faith);

  • Kuṇḍadhāna (receiving meal invitations);

  • Vaṅgīsa (perspicacity);

  • Upasena Vaṅgantaputta (inspiring confidence);

  • Dabba-Mallaputta (appointing lodgings);

  • Pilindavaccha (adored by devas);

  • Bāhiya Dārucīriya (enlightened quickly);

  • Kumārakassapa (varied and versatile discourse);

  • Mahākoṭṭhita (analytic insight);

  • Ānanda (erudite);

  • Ānanda (mindful; superb memory);

  • Ānanda (’exemplary conduct’: gati);

  • Ānanda (steadfast);

  • Ānanda (as an attendant);

  • Uruvelakassapa (with a large following);

  • Kāḷudāyī (inspiring families);

  • Baggula (with minimal illness);

  • Sobhita (remembering past lives);

  • Upāli (mastering the Vinaya);

  • Nandaka (instructing the bhikkhunis);

  • Nanda (guarding the sense doors);

  • Mahākappina (instructing the bhikkhus);

  • Sāgata (adept in the fire element);

  • Rādha (nurturing discernment);

  • Mogharāja (wearing a coarse robe).

Appendix 7: Seven Noble Beings

For comparison, a varying explanation of the seven noble beings is as follows: note that several terms in this sutta are inconsistent in various editions of the Tipiṭaka (e.g. between the Thai and Roman editions).312

  1. Saddhānusārī: a person who does not contact with the body and abide in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial (arūpa-samāpatti), but some of the taints (āsava) are destroyed through seeing the noble truths with wisdom. He has adequate faith in and love for the Tathāgata. Furthermore, he has these faculties: faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom.

  2. Dhammānusārī: a person who does not contact with the body and abide in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, but some of the taints are destroyed through seeing the noble truths with wisdom. He has adequately understood by wise reflection those teachings proclaimed by the Tathāgata. He has the faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom.

  3. Saddhā-vimutta: a person who does not contact with the body and abide in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, but some of the taints are destroyed through seeing the noble truths with wisdom. His faith is planted, rooted and established in the Tathāgata.

  4. Diṭṭhippatta: a person who does not contact with the body and abide in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, but some of the taints are destroyed through seeing the noble truths with wisdom. He has clearly understood and correctly applies with wisdom those teachings proclaimed by the Tathāgata.

  5. Kāya-sakkhī: a person who contacts with the body and abides in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, and some of the taints are destroyed through seeing the noble truths with wisdom.

  6. Paññā-vimutta: a person who does not contact with the body and abide in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, but all of the taints are destroyed through seeing the noble truths with wisdom.

  7. Ubhatobhāga-vimutta: a person who contacts with the body and abides in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, and has destroyed all of the taints through seeing the noble truths with wisdom.

Appendix 8: Four Kinds of Faith

There is a group of factors established in a later period of time dividing faith / belief into four kinds:

  1. kamma-saddhā: belief in kamma;

  2. vipāka-saddhā: belief in the fruits of kamma;

  3. kammassakatā-saddhā: belief that beings are the owners of their kamma;

  4. tathāgatabodhi-saddhā: faith in the Buddha’s awakening.

Apart from tathāgatabodhi-saddhā (a term formed from the Pali saddahati tathāgatassa bodhiṃ), this group of four is not found in the Pali Canon or even in the commentaries. This collection of four is a compilation of teachings found in different locations, but they are not found in the Pali Canon as these specific terms.

For example, kammassakatā-saddhā is only found in the Pali Canon as kammassakatā-ñāṇa;313 in the earlier suttas there is only kammassakatā.314 In the commentaries one finds kammassakatā-paññā315 and kammassakata-diṭṭhi,316 but these concern matters of wisdom.

Kamma-saddhā and vipāka-saddhā are derived from teachings concerning kamma, which are usually associated with wrong view (micchā-diṭṭhi) and right view (sammā-diṭṭhi),317 but these specific terms are not found in the Pali Canon. Even the expression ’believing in kamma’, which is one of the five qualities of a lay-disciple (upāsaka-dhamma), is translated from kammaṃ pacceti, which means focusing on achievement through action rather than relying on luck. This subject reflects the development of Buddhist thought and tradition later, post-canonical times.

1

MA. I. 73; DhsA. 356; Vism. 697; VismṬ: Ñāṇadassanavisuddhiniddesavaṇṇanā, Pariññādippabhedakathāvanṇṇanā.

2

The first example of using ariya-puggala as a term specific to stages of enlightenment occurs in the Puggala Paññatti of the Abhidhamma (Pug. 11-12, 14). See related material at: Vin. V. 117; Nd. I. 232; Ps. I. 167.

3

See ārya in ’A Sanskrit-English Dictionary’ by Sir Monier Monier-Williams (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), p. 152. See also ’The Laws of Manu’ (Manava Dharma Shastra).

4

Trans.: Vedas: body of ancient Brahmanistic sacred texts.

5

S. V. 433 (referred to at Vism. 495; in the Pali Canon the word ariyoti has vanished. See also ItA. I. 85; PsA. I. 62). Cf.: S. V. 435.

6

Alternatively: ārya-dhamma. Sn. 62; SnA. I. 350.

7

See, e.g.: DA. II. 643; A. V. 241; Nd2A. 77.

8

A. V. 274.

9

A. II. 69; AA. III. 213, 300; AA. III. 303.

10

Trans.: ’Silent Buddhas’; those who have reached the supreme awakening by themselves, but do not proclaim this truth to the world.

11

VinA. I. 165; DA. III. 1009; Nd1A. II. 379; NdA. [2/200]; Vism. 425. The Vibhaṅga of the Abhi-dhamma defines ariya as comprising Buddhas and disciples of Buddhas (Vbh. 259). [Trans.: although ariya usually refers to ’enlightened’ disciples, there are some exceptions. See below.]

12

E.g.: MA. I. 60; SA. III. 208; Nd1A. II. 272; DhsA. 349.

13

E.g.: M. III. 72; AA. III. 416; Nd1A. II. 336.

14

The term ariya can sometimes designate the mundane (lokiya), e.g.: SA. I. 35; SA. III. 303.

15

Offerings = dakkhiṇā (Sanskrit: dakshiṇā). Dakkhiṇā + neyya (taddhita suffix; ’secondary derivative’) = dakkhiṇeyya.

16

The commentaries mention those things given with the belief in action (kamma) and the fruits of action (kamma-vipāka), not given with the expectation of medical assistance or other favours; see: [KhA. 200]. Some places mention things offered by those who believe in the ’world beyond’ (paraloka); e.g.: Vism. 220; ItA. I. 88; VinṬ.: Pārājikakaṇḍaṃ, Sikkhāpaccakkhānavibhaṅgavaṇṇanā.

17

Trans.: four basic requisites: food, clothing, lodging, and medicine.

18

Anuttaraṁ puññakkhettaṁ lokassa.

19

See, e.g.: DA. III. 996; AA. IV. 29; VinṬ.: Pārājikakaṇḍaṃ, Sikkhāpaccakkhānavibhaṅgavaṇṇanā.

20

What we call ’production’ or ’industry’ invariably involves some degree of destruction. Sometimes the costs or harmful effects outweigh the value of the manufactured product. It is time that people review the true meaning of ’industry’, ’labour’, and ’production’, by using a broader perspective of economics.

21

S. II. 221.

22

This is a more liberal definition than that found in the Pali Canon, which claims that all unawakened persons use offerings as debtors.

23

VinṬ.: Nissaggiyakaṇḍaṃ, Kosiyavaggo, Rūpiyasikkhāpadavaṇṇanā; MA. III. 343; SA. II. 199; AA. I. 72; Vism. 43; VismṬ.: Sīlaniddesavaṇṇanā, Catupārisuddhisampādanavidhivaṇṇanā.

24

See: Dh. verse 49.

25

See the Cakkavatti-Sutta: D. III. 61.

26

Trans.: note that in the Thai version of Buddhadhamma, these two classifications are presented together.

27

E.g.: S. V. 61; A. V. 17; Vbh. 377; DA. I. 312. In the Pali Canon the fourth and fifth fetters are kāma-chanda and byāpāda respectively, except for A. I. 242, where one finds abhijjhā and byāpāda. The familiar pair of kāma-rāga and paṭigha comes from secondary texts and sub-commentaries, e.g.: Ps2. 94; Vism. 683; Comp.: Samuccayaparicchedo, Akusalasaṅgaho.

28

See: M. I. 300; S. IV. 287; Dhs. 182-3; Vbh. 364.

29

See Appendix 1 on sīlabbata-parāmāsa.

30

The two dakkhiṇeyya of sekha and asekha: A. I. 63, 231-2. The four dakkhiṇeyya or ariya-puggala (in some places referred to by other names or by no name at all): e.g. D. I. 156; D. II. 251-2; D. III. 107, 132; M. III. 80-1; Pug. 63. At A. IV. 279-80 stream-enterers are divided into three types and non-returners into five types; combined with once-returners, this makes nine types of sa-upādisesa-puggala.

31

See S. V. 347-8.

32

A. III. 438 states that stream-enterers are also free from (acute) greed, hatred and delusion, which lead to states of woe (apāya).

33

Ps. II. 94-5 states that once-returners have abandoned the fetters of coarse lust and animosity, and that non-returners have abandoned subtle lust and animosity. The Visuddhimagga states that once-returners have reduced lust and aversion (676-7). All of these interpretations are complementary.

34

This translation follows the commentarial interpretation, e.g. AA. IV. 40, 174.

35

Diṭṭheva dhamme aññā sati vā upādisese anāgāmitā. D. II. 314; M. I. 62, 481; S. V. 129, 237, 285; A. III. 81-2, 143; A. V. 108; It. 39; Sn. 140, 148. Explained in the commentaries: e.g. ItA. I. 169; SnA. II. 503.

36

D. III. 255; A. IV. 292. The Abhidhamma divides these eight into two groups: magga-samaṅgī (complete in the Path) and phala-samaṅgī (complete in the fruits of the Path) – Pug. 73.

37

E.g. M. I. 37; A. III. 286.

38

A. III. 373.

39

E.g. Vism. 218; VinṬ.: Paṭhamo Bhāgo, Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā.

40

See some of the Buddha’s key principles at: A. II. 172-3; D. III. 134-5; M. I. 395.

41

Trans.: in the Thai version of Buddhadhamma this passage immediately follows the initial section on Nibbāna.

42

Some of these words are frequently used, while others occur infrequently. See, e.g.: M. I. 235, 280, 446-7; M. II. 29; S. III. 61-2; A. V. 16, 221-22; Nd. II. 10. The last few words in particular were adopted from ancient Brahmanistic expressions, although given a new meaning to accord with Buddhist principles. For example, brāhmaṇa originally referred to someone who has transcended evil by bathing in holy rivers, e.g. the Ganges. In Buddhism, however, this term refers to being free from evil as a consequence of practising in accord with the Eightfold Path, or is used as a metaphor, in reference to one who has ’bathed in the Dhamma’.

43

These translations are of the Pali word bhāvitatto, which is equivalent in meaning to the phrase: attānaṃ bhāvetvā vaḍḍhetvā ṭhito. A bhāvitatta refers to one who has developed him- or herself and is established in such cultivation; SA. I. 207.

44

Trans.: the author spells this river Kakudhā.

45

Note that the third type of person refers to awakened disciples who are still in training (sekha) – i.e. they not yet arahants; they are not yet ’fully developed’ (bhāvitatta).

46

The section in parentheses is considered an elaboration on the main explanation.

47

I.e. in sīla, samādhi, and paññā.

48

I.e. they will formally accept others as their students.

49

Occasionally other terms with a similar meaning are used instead of bhāvitatta, in particular the term atta-danta (’one who has trained himself’; ’self-tamed’), as in the verse praising the Buddha: manussabhūtaṃ sambuddhaṃ attadantaṃ samāhitaṃ … devāpi taṃ namassanti (’Indeed, although a human being, The Perfectly Enlightened One has achieved self-mastery, whose heart is well-cultivated … even the devas venerate him.’) – A. III. 345-6.

50

When referring to their function or benefit for practical application these six doorways of cognition are generally called the six ’sense spheres’ (āyatana); when referring to them while they are functioning or operative they are generally called the six ’sense faculties’ (indriya).

51

For more on this subject, see Appendix 2.

52

Aggivessana is Saccaka’s clan- or surname.

53

The commentaries explain that kāya-bhāvanā here refers to insight meditation (vipassanā), while citta-bhāvanā refers to concentration (samādhi), i.e. tranquillity meditation (samatha) – MA. II. 285.

54

There are descriptions of how guarding the doorways of cognition are included in a practice leading to the stage of noble path and fruit, e.g.: S. IV. 120-21.

55

Trans.: the author uses the spelling Pārāsiriya.

56

Beware of interpreting the term paṭikkūla (’repulsive’) in too narrow a sense, as ’dirty’ or ’disgusting’. Examples in the scriptures of perceiving the non-repulsive in the repulsive include looking at someone who is physically unattractive with lovingkindness, or looking at an unpleasant material object from the perspective of its constituent elements, thus seeing it as meritable or pleasing on the eye. Similarly, looking at a person or an object that is generally considered to be beautiful from the perspective of impermanence, or by analyzing his/her/its component elements, is an example of perceiving the repulsive in the non-repulsive. See further explanations at: Ps. II. 212.

57

Occasionally this teaching is presented in the context of considering these requisites while one is actively using them; here, each passage begins with: ’Wisely reflecting…’ – paṭisaṅkhā yoniso…. For example, the passage on almsfood begins: ’Wisely reflecting, I eat almsfood neither for amusement, nor for indulging in delicious flavours, nor for the sake of boasting and physical attractiveness, but only for the support and sustenance of this body….’ E.g.: A. III. 388-9.

58

Jetassa rājakumārassa uyyānaṃ became jetavana anāthapiṇḍikassa ārāme. The Buddha’s words for allowing the creation of a monastery, in response to King Bimbisāra’s offering of the Veḷuvana Royal Park, is: anujānāmi bhikkhave ārāmaṃ (Vin. I. 38-9).

59

There are also places of delight that should be avoided, for example: sleep as a place of delight (niddārāma); busyness as a place of delight (kammārāma); talking and chatting as a place of delight (bhassārāma); socializing and mingling as a place of delight (saṅgaṇikārāma or saṅgaggārāma); and visual images and sounds as a place of delight (rūpārāma and saddārāma).

60

For examples, see below.

61

E.g. A. IV. 380; Pug. 37.

62

A. V. 139-40.

63

For context: S. IV. 132-3 (compare with A. I. 263-4; A. III. 415-6).

64

For context: D. III. 230; A. II. 231.

65

E.g. Dhs. 180-1.

66

See chapter 10 on desire.

67

Trans.: the five hindrances: sensual desire, ill-will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry, and doubt.

68

A. I. 9; 216; S. V. 121; A. III. 63-4, 230.

69

Vin. I. 20-1; S. I. 105-106.

70

Thag. verse 648.

71

Trans.: attha can also be translated as ’benefit’, ’welfare’, ’gain’, ’profit’ or ’wealth’.

72

Vin. I. 20-1; S. I. 105.

73

D. II. 119-20; D. III. 211-12.

74

A. III. 114-5, 355-6.

75

The Buddha: D. II. 211-12, 222; M. I. 21, 83; S. II. 275; A. I. 22. The Buddha, arahants and ’learners’ (sekha): It. 78-9. The Buddha and universal monarchs: A. I. 76. Monks and brahmins with moral conduct and virtuous qualities (kalyāṇa-dhamma): D. II. 331-2.

76

D. I. 228-9.

77

A. I. 60-61.

78

S. II. 203.

79

As an example for later generations: A. I. 71, 242-3; A. II. 147; A. III. 105-106, 178-9, 255-6; Vin. V. 132; as an example to others in general: A. I. 127, 239, 246-7; A. III. 114-5, 422.

80

Vin. II. 108, 128-9; Vin. III. 42; A. III. 251; M. II. 92-3.

81

A. I. 23.

82

AA. I. 135.

83

For a list of foremost bhikkhu disciples see Appendix 6.

84

E.g. Ven. Sāriputta and Ven. Mahā Moggallāna: M. I. 456-7. Ven. Mahā Kassapa: D. II. 162. Ven. Yasoja: Ud. 24-5.

85

Vin. I. 82. [Trans.: Ven. Rāhula was the Buddha’s son.]

86

E.g. the novices Saṅkicca, Paṇḍita, Sopāka and Revata: Thag. verses 480-6, 597-607, 645-58; DhA. II. 127, 239; DhA. IV. 186.

87

J. I. 234.

88

J. I. 161.

89

See M. I. 459.

90

D. II. 76; A. IV. 21.

91

M. III. 8-13; D. II. 154.

92

See Vinaya Piṭaka, vol. 1 and 2.

93

Vin. II. 74-6.

94

Vin. II. 284-5. [Trans.: saṅgāyanā – also translated as ’council’.]

95

Vin. II. 297-300.

96

Vin. II. 288-9.

97

VinA. I. 36; Mhvs. V. 101.

98

Miln. 7-8.

99

See: Paṭhamasambhodikathā, Mārabandhaparivatta, Pariccheda #28.

100

A. II. 120; It. 83.

101

M. II. 172.

102

Ibid.

103

M. III. 300-301.

104

Sn. 65, 95; Dh. verses 321-3.

105

Dh. verses 103-105.

106

A. III. 378.

107

Dh. verse 95; A. IV. 374-5; (on the level of training: M. I. 127, 423).

108

Sn. 101, 160; Dh. verse 401; A. II. 39.

109

D. III. 275.

110

S. I. 12, 23, 141; Sn. 201, 208; The Buddha preferred to use nirāsa in verses, in regard to wisdom, as a play on everyday words, the same as assaddha (faithless). In prose, another term is used – vigatāsa – meaning the departure of the wished for item, or the ending of hope, to contrast with hopelessness or disappointment (A. I. 107).

111

E.g.: M. I. 174; S. I. 55; A. I. 137-8; A. II. 208; Ud. 19-20; Sn. 119-20, 185.

112

Note that anulomikā khanti is translated here as ’investigation conducive to the realisation of truth’. Khanti is used here as an aspect of wisdom, and does not merely refer to patience; compare this sense with: Ps. I. 123-4; Ps. II. 236, 238; Vbh. 324-5, 340. (VbhA. 411 states that khanti is a synonym of paññā and VbhA. 459 states that anulomikā khanti is vipassanā-ñāṇa; khanti in this sense is sometimes translated as khanti-ñāṇa.)

113

M. I. 4-5.

114

S. II. 82-3; S. IV. 205-210; M. III. 285-6; A. II. 198-9.

115

S. IV. 236-7.

116

S. IV. 127.

117

S. III. 7.

118

S. III. 42.

119

M. I. 509; Dh. verse 204; Sn. 146.

120

See M. I. 506-509.

121

See A. V. 202.

122

On this subject see: S. IV. 124-5, 120-21; M. III. 299-300.

123

S. III. 69.

124

See: M. I. 85-90; S. III. 27-31; A. I. 259-60.

125

Questions that the Buddha did not answer, for example whether the world is eternal or not eternal.

126

See also Sn. 167 and Dh. Verse 97.

127

Vijjā, e.g.: MA. II. 348; MA. V. 100; SA. II. 270, 366; AA. I. 55; AA. II. 264; AA. III. 175; [2/580]; AA. IV. 90. Vimutti, e.g.: MA. II. 281; MA. V. 59; AA. II. 263; AA. III. 217, 227, 378, 416; ItA. I. 170. Vijjā and vimutti, e.g.: MA. V. 104; AA. I. 120; AA. II. 79, 154; AA. III. 220; AA. V. 43; VismṬ.: Anussatikammaṭṭhānaniddesavaṇṇanā, Ānāpānassatikathāvaṇṇanā. Some explanations are contradictory.

128

VismṬ.: Cha-anussatiniddesavaṇṇanā, Buddhānussatikathāvaṇṇanā.

129

Alternatively: ’seeming to neglect others’.

130

Alternatively: ’acting appropriately with gifts’ (paradavuttā).

131

Gentle; not disturbing others or seeking personal gains; cherishing freedom; able to move about freely.

132

Trans.: King Pasenadi mentions ten reasons; these include: the bhikkhus live in concord and mutual appreciation, without disputing; and the bhikkhu sangha is well-disciplined.

133

This passage refers to the Buddha as a great being. Many passages, however, attest that this is an attribute of all those freed from the taints (khīṇāsava). See: M. I. 121-2, 214-15; AA. III. 5; [2/471].

134

S. IV. 40-41.

135

These passages and M. I. 185-6 are instructions for those aspiring to Nibbāna. Arahants have perfected this loving kindness.

136

This is a quality of the Buddha. Arahants, however, follow this practice and the term mahāpurisa is a common epithet for arahants. E.g.: Dh. verse 352; Sn. 199.

137

E.g.: M. II. 138; S. I. 219-20.

138

Vism. 634-5; VbhA. 489.

139

Except for the last (eighth) vimokkha (saññāvedayita-nirodha or nirodha-samāpatti), which is the exclusive province of non-returners and arahants.

140

Vimokkha corresponds with vimutti only in the term cetovimutti: liberation through the power of samādhi.

141

E.g.: D. III. 262; A. IV. 306-307. Explained at: Ps. II. 38-40; DA. II. 513; MA. III. 255; AA. IV. 146.

142

Trans.: kasiṇa: ten meditations on the colours blue, yellow, red, and white, and on the elements earth, water, fire, air, space and consciousness (or light).

143

D. III. 105, 253-4; A. IV. 10-11, 76-7; Ps. II. 53-4. For a varying explanation see Appendix 7.

144

This diagram follows the outline in the Pali Canon (cf.: A. I. 120; Pug. 74), which the Paramatthamañjusā claims is a straightforward presentation. The Paṭisambhidāmagga uses an outline it calls ’indirect’ or ’figurative’ which differs greatly (Ps. II. 53-5). I will not present this latter outline here as it may cause confusion. Later texts like the Visuddhimagga explain using this latter outline. See: Vism. 659-60; VismṬ.: Paṭipadāñāṇadassanavisuddhiniddesavaṇṇanā, Saṅkhārupekkhāñāṇakathāvaṇṇanā. Cf.: A. I. 120 and Pug. 72.

145

Paṭivedhakāle paññandriyaṁ ādhipateyyaṁ hoti (Ps. II. 50-51; and see S. V. 222).

146

Ps. II. 52.

147

E.g.: DA. II. 514; Vism. 660; VismṬ.: Paṭipadāñāṇadassanavisuddhiniddesavaṇṇanā, Saṅkhārupekkhāñāṇakathāvaṇṇanā.

148

See: S. II. 121-7.

149

A comparison of paññā-vimutta and ubhatobhāga-vimutta is found at D. II. 68-71.

150

Some secondary and later texts divide liberation into three kinds and expand them into categories, according to discernment into each of the three universal characteristics (tilakkhaṇa), and linked to the dominant faculties. These three liberations are suññata-vimokkha, animitta-vimokkha and appaṇihita-vimokkha. To avoid overburdening the reader I will not list these categories here. See: Ps. II. 35-71; Vism. 657-9; Comp.: Kammaṭṭhānaparicchedo, Vipassanākammaṭṭhānaṃ, Visuddhibhedo. The Vinaya Piṭaka lists these three liberations, but the commentarial explanation is different; see: Vin. III. 92-3; Vin. IV. 25-6; VinA. II. 493. Moreover, the commentaries classify the five paññā-vimutta and the five ubhatobhāga-vimutta here according to the foundations of samatha meditation at, e.g.: DA. II. 512; DA. III. 889; MA. III. 188; PañcA. 191.

151

See: M. I. 437; MA. III. 191.

152

A. III. 84. Essentially, all persons who have attained arahantship have completed these two kinds of liberation – see below.

153

Ps. II. 53-5; cf.: A. IV. 451-3. See also A. I. 24 where Ven. Vakkali is praised as the foremost disciple of all saddhā-vimutta (or saddhādhimutta). The Visuddhimagga explains according to the Paṭisambhidāmagga (Vism. 659-60).

154

E.g.: D. II. 313.

155

E.g.: D. III. 222-3.

156

Cf.: D. II. 216-7; M. III. 71; S. V. 21; A. IV. 40.

157

Bhikkhunī Dhammadinnā claims concentration meditation includes the cultivation of those factors focused upon (nimitta) and of supporting spiritual qualities (M. I. 301).

158

See, e.g.: A. II. 160; Ps. I. 119-20; Vbh. 294-5. It is not necessary to be an ubhatobhāga-vimutta to attain the four paṭisambhidā (see: Vism. 277, 442; VbhA. 388).

159

These definitions of paññā-vimutta and ubhatobhāga-vimutta follow the explanations of the commentaries and sub-commentaries, e.g.: DA. II. 514, 515; Vism. 659-60; VismṬ.: Paṭipadāñāṇadassanavisuddhiniddesavaṇṇanā, Saṅkhārupekkhāñāṇakathāvaṇṇanā. Cf.: D. II. 70-1; S. II. 123-27. On the three vijjā see: D. III. 220, 275-6; A. V. 211. On the six abhiññā see, e.g.: D. III. 281; A. III. 280. [Trans.: note that the term ubhatobhāga-vimutta is used here as both a heading and a sub-heading.]

160

Of these six terms, sukkhavipassaka comes from the commentaries; the rest are found in the Pali Canon. These six kinds of arahants are listed at Vism. 710, but the first is saddhāvimutta rather than sukkhavipassaka. A saddhāvimutta is one with faith as dominant faculty up to the point of attaining stream-entry. The Paṭisambhidāmagga (Ps. II. 53-4) retains the use of this term for that person all the way to arahantship (although written as saddhādhimutta); at Vism. 659, however, it is written as saddhāvimutta.

161

Yogakkhema: freedom from the defilements, which bind beings to existence; equivalent to arahantship. In general parlance it can mean ’safety’ or ’security’.

162

The commentaries define bhūta (’has come to be’) here as the five aggregates. The commentators claim this is only one way of describing the way of practice for trainees and those beyond training. In fact, bhūta here can be defined in many ways, for example as the sense spheres, the elements (dhātu), or as the factors in Dependent Origination (SA. II. 61).

163

Saṅkhāta-dhamma: one who has fully examined the Dhamma = an arahant; see: SA. II. 59; UdA. 116; SnA. I. 124; SnA. II. 587.

164

There are two similar suttas in the Mahāvagga of the Saṁyutta Nikāya: at S. V. 193 the five aggregates are replaced by the five spiritual faculties (5 indriya) and at S. V. 205 they are replaced by the six sense bases (6 indriya).

165

I.e. a stream-enterer; see the section on stream-enterers below.

166

The commentaries explain that he was established in the path of non-returning (SA. II. 123).

167

The Pali for ’I still experience [the notion] “I am” ’ is asmīti adhigataṁ, and for ’but I do not regard [anything among them] as “this I am” ’ is ayamahamasmīti ca na samanupassāmīti. The second phrase in the Burmese edition is: ayamasmīti na ca na samanupassāmīti. Following the Burmese edition, this sentence is rendered: I still experience [the notion] “I am”… and I have not yet stopped regarding [them] as “this I am”.

168

From the beginning up to this point a non-returner is being discussed. The five fetters that have been abandoned are: fixed personality view, doubt, adherence to rules and vows, sensual lust, and aversion. The remaining five fetters are: attachment to the fine-material realms, attachment to the formless realms, conceit, restlessness, and ignorance.

169

The realization of arahantship.

170

The eight liberations have been discussed earlier.

171

The commentaries translate maggavidū (’adept in the path’) as a ’declarer of the path’ SA. II. 308.

172

The ’four factors of stream-entry’ (sotāpattiyaṅga) refer in some cases to the factors that bring about stream-entry and in other cases to the qualities of a stream-enterer.

173

For example, the story of Visākhā at: Ud. 91-2; UdA. 417; DhA. III. 278.

174

Important sources at: Vin. I. 35-9; PvA. 209. [Trans.: the Observance Day precepts include celibacy and fasting after midday.]

175

Important sources at: Vin. II. 154-9; A. I. 25-6; AA. I. 384.

176

Important sources include: Vin. I. 290-4; A. I. 26; AA. I. 404; DhA. I. 384.

177

Important sources at: Vin. I. 71-2, 267-82; Vin. II. 119; A. I. 25-6; AA. I. 398.

178

Important sources at: A. I. 25-6; A. II. 61-2; A. III. 295-6; A. IV. 268-9; S. III. 1; S. IV. 116; AA. I. 399.

179

Unlike the Pali, which first lists the absent, abandoned qualities, I list here the positive, active qualities first, which is a more contemporary format. In any case, the absent and active qualities are directly linked with one another.

180

The Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha.

181

The teachings of the noble ones; virtuous qualities. On ’learned ones’ (sutavant), ’noble disciples’ (ariya-sāvaka), and the ’noble Dhamma’ (ariya-dhamma), see Appendix 3.

182

Trans.: as this teaching was given to bhikkhus, this virtue refers to sharing alms and other donations, which can be a source of conflict and disharmony.

183

These special characteristics are attributes of right view, which fall under the heading of wisdom, but due to their detailed explanations I have created a separate heading. The Buddha gave this sermon (M. I. 320-25) in reference to bhikkhu stream-enterers, but it is applicable to lay stream-enterers as well. For transgressions of the Vinaya, see: A. I. 231-34. The Buddha said that even arahants are subject to minor transgressions. Enlightened beings of all stages of enlightenment, however, are incapable of transgressing fundamental rules of the holy life, and their minor transgressions are unintentional. See Vin. V. 117, and see examples of transgressions at AA. II. 348.

184

Also translated as ’stinginess’, ’narrow-mindedness’, or ’envy’.

185

A. III. 272-3 (while possessing these five kinds of selfishness, even the first jhāna is unreachable); Vism. 683, 685.

186

Also translated as ’misconduct’.

187

Vin. II. 285; Vism. 683, 685.

188

Trans.: a synonym for lobha.

189

S. III. 225; A. III. 438.

190

S. II. 133-40; S. V. 388, 441-2, 457-65.

191

A. III. 371-4; cf.: A. IV. 135-6.

192

The fruit of stream-entry.

193

E.g.: MA. I. 74; SA. III. 55; KhA. 188; SnA. I. 193; PsA. I. 282; DhsA. 43; for sotāpatti-magga referred to as dassana, see, e.g.: M. I. 7-8; Dhs. 182, 220.

194

A. I. 74.

195

For learned noble disciples who are kalyāṇa-puthujjana, see: M. I. 8; MA. I. 72; for those who are stream-enterers or higher, see below.

196

In reference to the two factors for acquiring right view, learning (suta) is knowledge derived from others (paratoghosa) – it relies on wise and trustworthy companions. This learning consequently leads to faith and wise reflection (yoniso-manasikāra).

197

A. III. 53.

198

A. III. 53; these five treasures are also known as the five noble treasures (ariya-vaḍḍhi), although the more common group of noble treasures contains two more qualities, of moral shame (hiri) and fear of wrongdoing (ottappa), e.g.: D. III. 251; A. IV. 5-6.

199

Vin. IV. 180; even if he visits their house and they offer food, he should not receive it, not to mention going and asking for food as this is an offence under any circumstance (except with relatives or one who has given a formal invitation); see: Vin. I. 45; Vin. IV. 87, 193. It is the same with the other three requisites (see: Vin. III. 148, 212, 256; Vin. IV. 102-3). See also: D. III. 224-5; S. II. 195; A. II. 27-8; A. III. 108-9; Nd. I. 495; Nd. II. 59; Vism. 39-42.

200

See, e.g.: Vin. I. 12, 16; in most cases the Dhamma eye refers to knowledge resulting in stream-entry (sotāpattimagga-ñāṇa), e.g.: VinA. V. 973; DA. I. 278; AA. II. 356; AA. IV. 102; UdA. 283; Nd2A. 8. Sometimes the term includes the path of once-returning and the path of non-returning, e.g.: VinA. III. 537; DA. I. 237; PsA. I. 77; DhsA. 306. Sometimes it refers to the three paths and the three fruits, e.g.: SA. III. 297. And in some places it refers to all four paths and all four fruits, including the fruit of arahantship, e.g.: NdA. 83; MA. III. 92; MA. V. 99; SA. II. 392; VinṬ.: Mahākhandhakaṃ, Dhammacakkappavattanasuttavaṇṇanā. One passage in the Pali Canon refers to two occasions for the arising of the Dhamma eye; the first is the path of stream-entry and the second the path of non-returning (A. I. 242).

201

DhA. III. 9; J. I. 226.

202

The terms diṭṭhi-sampanna and dassana-sampanna are frequently used alone as synonyms for a stream-enterer; for diṭṭhi-sampanna see, e.g.: M. I. 322-5; M. III. 64-5; S. II. 80, 133-9; S. V. 441-2, 457-65; A. I. 26-7; A. III. 373, 438-40; A. V. 119-20; Ps. I. 161; Vbh. 335-6; (commentarial explanations at e.g.: SA. II. 59; MA. IV. 107; AA. III. 387; AA. IV. 185); dassana-sampanna is only found in verses, e.g.: A. I. 151; A. III. 34; Thag. verses 45, 174; (commentarial explanations at e.g.: AA. III. 244). Ariyo nibbedhikapañño (a noble one with penetrative wisdom) can also be translated as ’a noble one with wisdom that penetrates defilement’, ’a noble one with liberating wisdom’, or ’a noble one with unimpeded wisdom’ (see: Ps. II. 201-202; DA. III. 1029, [3/300]; MA. III. 31, 326; MA. IV. 85; SA. I. 122; AA. II. 86; AA. III. 223, 258, 406; Nd1A. II. 285, 353, 359; Vism. 88; VismṬ.: Kammaṭṭhānaggahaṇaniddesavaṇṇanā, Samādhicatukkavaṇṇanā).

203

For more information on sutavā ariyasāvaka, ariya-dhamma, and sappurisa, see Appendix 3.

204

This passage tends to follow the description of someone attaining the ’Dhamma eye’. Aparappaccaya (’independent of others’) can also be translated as: ’no need to believe others’.

205

Words in parentheses only found in the Vinaya Piṭaka.

206

This passage mentions the names of twenty-one laymen, some of whom are non-returners.

207

The four factors of stream-entry (sotāpattiyaṅga) here refer to the four qualities of a stream-enterer; see SA. III. 278. There are three distinct groups of sotāpattiyaṅga (each with four factors) – see below.

208

Also see A. V. 182-3, which reference has ’contemplates thus’ rather than ’analyzes Dependent Origination thus’. A. IV. 405-408 contains the same self-examination and declaration, but only mentions the five fearful retributions and the four factors of stream-entry – there is no mention of the noble method. A. III. 211-12 is an alternative presentation: instead of the five retributions are the ’deeds of restraint concerning the five precepts’, and the four factors of stream-entry are called the ’four supreme mental abidings for dwelling in happiness in the present’. There are many references to stream-enterers specifically linked to an understanding of Dependent Origination (the ’noble method’), e.g.: S. II. 43, 59, 80 (they are usually referred to here as ’perfected in view’ – diṭṭhi-sampanna). Stream-enterers are considered to be ’true knowers of the world’ (S. II. 80; A. IV. 238; Dh. verse 44). At S. II. 59, stream-enterers are said to possess two forms of knowledge: ’truth-knowledge’ (dhamma-ñāṇa) and ’conformity knowledge’ (anvaya-ñāṇa), which are both related to Dependent Origination.

209

This presentation occurs frequently in the Saṁyutta Nikāya, Mahāvāra Vagga. The four factors of stream-entry are usually referred to as the four ’qualities’ (dhamma); they are specifically referred to as the four factors of stream-entry (sotāpattiyaṅga) in the preceding quotation and at S. V. 345 and S. V. 364-5.

210

D. II. 93; S. V. 357-60.

211

S. V. 391-2, 399-402 (the fourth factor of sīla is sometimes changed to cāga or paññā).

212

A. III. 211.

213

S. V. 354-6.

214

S. V. 382-5.

215

Ariyā vaḍḍhi can also be spelled ariyā vaḍḍhanā or ariyā vuḍḍhi.

216

Earlier in this sutta (M. III. 99-103), it states that someone possessing these five qualities can choose to be reborn in any level of deva or Brahma realm according to his or her wishes.

217

This sutta mentions bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, lay-men and lay-women who have heard the reputations of enlightened beings, from arahants down to stream-enterers; here, I have offered an example (see: M. I. 465-8).

218

These five qualities of faith, conduct, learning, generosity and wisdom are sometimes called the five ’accomplishments’ (sampadā) – see: A. III. 53, 118. Sometimes they are called the five ’treasures’ (dhana) – e.g.: A. III. 53. They are mentioned in many different contexts, e.g.: D. III. 164-5; M. II. 179; A. I. 210-11; A. III. 181, 314; A. V. 333-4; Ud. 50. Occasionally, learning (suta) is left out and the remaining qualities are called the ’four accomplishments’; this indicates that these four are the essential qualities (see, e.g.: A. II. 66; A. IV. 281, 285-6, 324-5, 363-4). And sometimes these qualities are not referred to by name (e.g.: A. IV. 270-72).

219

Faith in the enlightenment of the Tathāgata is also found in the factors of one who exerts effort (padhāniyaṅga); see: D. III. 237; M. II. 128; A. V. 15. And it is a definition for the faculty of faith (saddhindriya); see: S. V. 197-8, 199.

220

Same as preceding footnote.

221

In the expression ’noble disciples who have not yet reached a stage of awakening’, or ’unenlightened noble disciples’, the term ’noble disciple’ (ariya-sāvaka) here refers to a ’disciple of the Buddha, the Noble One’, rather than to a ’disciple who is a noble one’.

222

This definition of learning is often included in other groups of spiritual qualities.

223

Referred to as an ’accomplishment’ (sampadā) at: A. IV. 284-5, 288, 324-5. Called an ’ocean of merit’ at S. V. 392. ’Penetrates arising and passing away’ (udayatthagāminiyā) can also be translated as ’understands growth and decline’. ’Pierces defilement’ (nibbedhikā) can also be translated as ’penetrates the truth’.

224

The gist of this teaching is to be able to reflect on things without being overwhelmed by the five hindrances.

225

A stream-enterer.

226

The Buddha.

227

Trans.: stream-enterers can only be reborn a maximum of seven times.

228

Acts with immediate results, e.g.: matricide (see below).

229

These last two groups of abhabbaṭṭhāna also occur at: M. III. 64; A. I. 26-7; Vbh. 335-6.

230

Compare with the nine abhabbaṭṭhāna and the five abhabbaṭṭhāna of an arahant, at: D. III. 133, 235; for example, an arahant is incapable of intentionally killing a living creature.

231

Trans.: macchariya: also translated as ’stinginess’ or ’meanness’.

232

The same holds for realizing the first four jhānas and the remaining three stages of enlightenment. The next sutta (A. III. 273) is identical, except selfishness (macchariya) is replaced with ingratitude (akataññutā akataveditā).

233

Trans.: Bhikkhu Bodhi translates this clause as: ’subject to being worn and rubbed away’.

234

The four factors of stream-entry.

235

The passage translated as ’one’s suffering is limited’ is literally translated as ’one’s suffering is finished’. This passage in the Thai edition has the word na inserted, but this seems to be redundant – the Burmese edition does not contain this word.

236

The bliss of craving’s end = taṇhakkhaya-sukha.

237

The definitions for ’worldlings’ (puthujjana) and enlightened beings (ariya-puggala) seem to get progressively more restricted and inflexible in the commentaries and sub-commentaries.

238

For the complete definitions of these qualities, see earlier quotations, above.

239

At S. V. 201-202, noble beings are ranked according to the strength of the five faculties: faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom. Here, someone with a strength of faculties just below a stream-enterer is a faith-devotee, with the next lower level a truth-devotee. A person without any degree of these spiritual faculties is an ’outsider, one who stands among the worldlings.’

240

See the passages following from the previous footnote (i.e.: S. V. 411-13). At Ps. II. 189, it states that these four qualities are conducive for the realization of once-returning up to the realization of arahantship, and that they benefit wisdom in many ways, for example to cultivate wisdom, to complete wisdom, to sharpen wisdom, and to bring about ’penetrative wisdom’ (nibbedhika-paññā). As factors for cultivating wisdom, these four are also called ’qualities conducive to wisdom’ (paññāvuḍḍhi-dhamma) or simply the four vuḍḍhi (or vuḍḍhi-dhamma). At A. II. 245-6 these qualities are referred to as conducive to wisdom and of great service to human beings; they can also be called ’qualities of great service’ (bahukāra-dhamma).

241

Mindfulness (sati) and clear comprehension, or the awareness of right and wrong, are the protectors of moral conduct.

242

The most basic forms of sīla, e.g. the five precepts, aim for non-cruelty and non-oppression, which is the first step to building a supportive environment. Higher levels of sīla aim to create both a supportive external environment and internal environment – to help each person train him- or herself for higher spiritual accomplishments.

243

For the reasons behind giving, see Appendix 4.

244

’Worldly happiness’ (upadhi-sukha) is happiness tainted by defilement or happiness of the three spheres of existence: the sense-sphere, the fine-material sphere, and the immaterial sphere. Upadhi here is translated as defilement.

245

This is consistent with the attribute of generosity of noble disciples: ’devoted to the requests of others’ (yācayoga). A noble disciple is responsive to appeals and eager to help.

246

Alternatively, one knows the cycles of nature: of birth, old age, sickness and death, of growth and decline. ’Pierces defilement’ can also be translated as ’penetrating the truth’.

247

Vin. III. 3-4.

248

S. II. 106; S. III. 66, 108-109; M. III. 4.

249

In answer to the question of whether human knowledge is limited, the knowledge of one who is well-trained is the highest possible degree of human wisdom. If this knowledge has limits, then no knowledge exists elsewhere that surpasses and augments it; even the knowledge belonging to the highest gods is conferred on them by human beings (see: Kevaṭṭa Sutta, D. I. 215-23; Brahmanimantanika Sutta, M. I. 326-31).

250

For a later division of faith into four factors, see Appendix 2 in chapter 14 on faith.

251

Recovering the importance of and emphasizing these five factors resolves another important issue: that many Westerners mistakenly view Buddhism as a pessimistic religion or one that abdicates responsibility and shows no interest in society.

252

They believe in kamma.

253

Trans.: the eight ’worldly conditions’: gain and loss, praise and blame, happiness and suffering, fame and obscurity.

254

’Family leader’ is translated from kula-pati. Kula is usually translated as ’family’ or ’lineage’, but the word originally meant ’group’, ’company’, or ’party’. It can refer to people of the same social standing, and the definition can be extended to those who share an activity or who have mutual interests: an organization, institution or business. For example, the president of Nālandā University in India (destroyed in 1193 AD) was called a kula-pati.

255

Sn. 41, 155-6, 164-5, 208-209.

256

E.g.: Nd. I. 88-9, 188; Nd. II 29.

257

M. I. 103, 388; S. IV. 180; A. III. 250; A. IV. 55, 461; Nd. I. 34, 215.

258

E.g.: Sn. 175-6, 208-209.

259

See also the commentarial explanation: Nd1A II. 272.

260

Dhs. 183, 198, 364-5, 374-5.

261

Nd. I. 188.

262

E.g.: DhsA. 348.

263

Nd. I. 88-9.

264

See: Nd. I. 66, 475.

265

See: MA I. 151.

266

Nd2A. 133.

267

DhA. III. 399; cf.: AA. III. 326.

268

Vin. III. 220, VinA. III. 672.

269

Vin. I. 347.

270

D. III. 28; DA. III. 829.

271

A. III. 213.

272

Nd. I. 216.

273

J. IV. 379; J. V. 281; J. VI. 73; cf.: DhsA. 238; MA. II. 310.

274

Nd1A. II. 339, 349; see also: Nd1A. I. 163; Nd1A. II. 304; DhsA. 49.

275

E.g.: Sn. 156-7; Dhs. 183; M. I. 388; Nd1A. [1/122].

276

See Nd1A. II. 349.

277

See UdA. 351.

278

E.g.: S. V. 343. Also explained at: VinA. VII. 1317; DA. I. 108; DA. II. 536; SA. III. 277; AA. III. 345; Vism. 13-4. Cf.: SA. II. 98. Also translated as ’irreproachable’: one is beyond blame and fault.

279

See: Sn. 156-7, 171-2.

280

Vin. I. 183-4; A. III. 376.

281

It. 80; Sn. 36.

282

A. I. 167.

283

Sn. 164-5.

284

E.g.: S. V. 343, 408-409. See the earlier section on stream-enterers.

285

See: A. I. 225; Ud. 71.

286

E.g.: A. I. 231.

287

Peṭakopadesapāḷi [p. 290]; here moral development is placed before physical development.

288

D. III. 219-20.

289

Citta here refers to tranquillity meditation (samatha) and paññā refers to insight meditation (vipassanā).

290

Nett. 76. Note that this is only a selection of the explanation from this text.

291

Nd1A. II. 267.

292

AA. II. 261.

293

NettA. [154].

294

AA. II. 261. The three remaining kinds of virtue are: pāṭimokkhasaṁvara-sīla, ājīvapārisuddhi-sīla, and paccayapaṭisevana-sīla.

295

SA. II. 395.

296

Dīgha Nikāya Ṭīkā (Pāṭika) III. 277; bhāvitabhāvena bhāvanā.

297

A. V. 274.

298

A. V. 241.

299

A. III. 213; explained at AA. III. 100, 304.

300

See: MA. I. 21; SA. II. 97; AA. I. 63; DhsA. 349; cf.: Nd. I. 146-7, 248-9; DA. I. 59; Nd1A. II. 273; PsA. I. 205, 266; VinṬ.: Paṭhamo Bhāgo, Paṭhamamahāsaṅgītikathāvaṇṇanā; VinṬ.: Pārājikakaṇḍaṃ, Bhikkhupadabhājanīyavaṇṇanā.

301

The factors in this group and in the following groups are organized from lesser to higher motivations.

302

The view of eternalism (sassata-vāda).

303

The view of annihilationism – uccheda-vāda (see: S. III. 99). Although this is a form of wrong view, the Buddha said that of all the doctrines outside of Buddhism, annihilationism is best, because its advocates will be averse to becoming (bhava) and will not be averse to the end of becoming. See: A. V. 64; AA. V. 27; SA. II. 306.

304

Nihilism (natthika-vāda).

305

The doctrine of the inefficacy of action (akiriya-vāda).

306

The doctrine of non-causality (ahetuka-vāda). Six classes of human beings = abhijāti.

307

A combination of eternalism, the doctrine of the inefficacy of action, and the doctrine of ’purity by wandering on (in the round of rebirth)’ (saṁsāra-suddhi).

308

The ten ’extreme views’ (antagāhika-diṭṭhi).

309

All of the aforementioned views.

310

I.e. in the five aggregates and that which is seen, heard, sensed, etc.

311

S. IV. 287 states that the sixty-two kinds of views stem from fixed personality view (sakkāya-diṭṭhi); when fixed personality view ceases, these views cease as well.

312

M. I. 477-8.

313

See: Nd. I. 188-9; Dhs. 233; Vbh. 328.

314

A. III. 185-6.

315

E.g.: DA. II. 359; DA. III. 936; SA. I. 87.

316

E.g.: MA. I. 188; SA. III. 199.

317

E.g.: M. I. 288