Awakened Beings

Awakened Beings

Introduction

There is a well-known teaching in the Buddhist scriptures describing the stages of enlightenment – the stages of realizing Nibbāna. This comprises the four paths (magga) and four fruits (phala):

1. The path and fruit of stream-entry
   (sotāpatti-magga and sotāpatti-phala).

2. The path and fruit of once-returning
   (sakadāgāmi-magga and sakadāgāmi-phala).

3. The path and fruit of non-returning
   (anāgāmi-magga and anāgāmi-phala).

4. The path and fruit of arahantship
   (arahatta-magga and arahatta-phala).

The first ’path’ of stream-entry is also called ’vision’ (dassana), because it refers to the first glimpse of Nibbāna. The following three ’paths’, of once-returning, non-returning, and arahantship, are collectively known as ’cultivation’ (bhāvanā), since they involve a development in the Dhamma initially realized at the moment of stream-entry.¹ {403}

Those who have reached complete realization of Nibbāna, as well as those who obtain a first glimpse of the goal and are thus guaranteed to reach it, are classified as true disciples of the Buddha. They are known as the ’community of disciples’ (sāvaka-saṅgha), as seen for example in the verse praising the attributes of the Sangha: ’They are the Blessed One’s disciples who have practised well.’

There are many special terms used to describe these true disciples. The most frequently used term is ariya-puggala (or ariya), translated as ’cultivated’, ’noble’, or ’far from the foe’ (i.e. far from mental defilement). The term ariya-puggala was originally used in a general sense; only later was it used specifically in relation to the stages of enlightenment.² The original term used in the Pali Canon when distinguishing the stages of enlightenment is dakkhiṇeyya (or dakkhiṇeyya-puggala). In any case, the terms ariya-puggala and dakkhiṇeyya-puggala were adopted from Brahmanism. The Buddha altered their meanings, as he did with many other words, for example: brahmā, brāhmaṇa (’brahmin’), nahātaka (’washed clean’), and vedagū (’sage’).

The Buddha gave the term ariya a new definition, different from that prescribed by the brahmins. The word ariya (Sanskrit: ārya; English: Aryan) originally referred to a race of people who migrated from the northwest regions and invaded the Indian subcontinent several thousand years ago. As a result of this invasion, the native inhabitants retreated either south or into the forests and mountains. The Aryans considered themselves cultivated; they disdained the native people, marking them as savages and enslaving them. Later, when the Aryans had consolidated their rule and established the caste system, the native peoples were accorded the lowest tier as sudda (Śūdra; labourers). The term ariya (’noble’) designated the three upper castes of khattiya (Kṣatriyaḥ; warriors, kings, administrators), brāhmaṇa (brahmins; scholars, priests, teachers), and vessa (Vaishya; merchants). Suddas and all others were labelled anariya (’ignoble’, ’base’).³ A person’s caste was determined at birth; there was no way to choose or alter one’s position.

When the Buddha began teaching, he declared that nobility does not depend on birth, but rather on righteousness (Dhamma), which stems from spiritual practice and training. Whoever acts in line with noble principles (ariya-dhamma) is ’noble’ (ariya) irrespective of birth or caste. Whoever does not is anariya. Truth is not restricted to the dictates of brahmins and the Vedas,⁴ but is objective and universal. A person who has realized these universal truths is noble, despite having never studied the Vedas. Because knowledge of these truths makes one noble, they are called the ’noble truths’.⁵ {404} Technically, those who understand the noble truths are stream-enterers and above. Therefore, the scriptures generally use the term ariya as synonymous with dakkhiṇeyya-puggala (’those worthy of offerings’), a term which will be discussed shortly.

The Four Noble Truths (ariya-sacca) are sometimes referred to as the ariya-dhamma.⁶ The term ariya-dhamma, however, does not have a fixed definition and is used in other contexts.⁷ It can refer to the ten ’wholesome ways of action’ (kusala-kammapatha)⁸ and to the five precepts.⁹ Such definitions are not contradictory, since those householders who truly keep the five precepts their entire lives, without blind adherence (sīlabbata-parāmāsa) and without blemish, are stream-enterers and above. The standard commentarial definition of ariya in reference to ’noble’ people encompasses the Buddha, Pacceka-Buddhas¹⁰ and disciples of the Buddha,¹¹ although in some places the definition refers to the Buddha alone.¹² When qualifying a spiritual practice or factor, ariya is equivalent to ’transcendent’ (lokuttara),¹³ although this is not always strictly the case.¹⁴

Although the definition of ariya is rather broad, one can summarize that when the term is used in reference to people it is identical to dakkhiṇeyya-puggala, meaning those who have gone beyond the state of ordinary persons and become members of the sāvaka-saṅgha (today, more often called the ariya-saṅgha). (See also Note Commentarial Categories of Ariyas). In the commentaries and sub-commentaries this definition is almost fixed, with very few exceptions. In the scriptures, the term ariya tends to be used in a general sense, not specifying the level of awakening. Dakkhiṇeyya is the more specific technical term and is used less often than ariya.

The Buddha extended the meaning of the term ariya, referring to members of a new community, i.e. Buddhist disciples who are ennobled by practising the Middle Way. These disciples live ethically, non-violently and in harmony. They are dedicated to promoting wellbeing for all. {405} Their actions are not ruled by the enticements and threats of religious officials, who often cater to people’s selfish needs. Moral principles may be perverted due to the decisions of such religious authorities. An example of this is the sacrifice of animals performed by brahmins.

Dakkhiṇeyya translates as ’one worthy of offerings’.¹⁵ The original Brahmanic meaning of this word referred to the payment received for performing ceremonies, particularly sacrifices (yañña; Sanskrit: yajña). The Vedas describe the forms of payment, including: gold, silver, household goods, furniture, vehicles, grain, livestock, young women, and land. The more prestigious the ceremony the greater the reward. For example, in the Ashvamedha (’royal horse sacrifice’) the king shared the spoils of war with the priests. The recipients of these gifts were invariably the brahmins, because they were the only ones entitled to perform the rituals.

When the Buddha began teaching he spoke in favour of abolishing animal sacrifice, and he transformed the meanings of the words yañña and dakkhiṇā. He developed the meaning of yañña into cruelty-free almsgiving, while dakkhiṇā in the Buddhist teachings refers to suitable gifts and faithful donations, not a fee or recompense.¹⁶ If it is a reward then it is a reward for virtue, but it is more aptly called an offering in honour of virtue. In addition, these gifts are not excessively lavish, but simple and basic requisites essential for life.¹⁷

Persons worthy of these offerings have trained themselves and are full of goodness. They embody a virtuous and joyful life. Their very existence in the world is a blessing to others. When they go out into the wider society and impart these virtuous principles, living as an example and instructing others, they offer a priceless service to the world. And these individuals do not demand or wish for recompense. They rely on the offerings of the four requisites merely to sustain life. Offerings made to such people bear great fruit because the offerings permit goodness to manifest and increase in the world. These people are called ’worthy of offerings’ (dakkhiṇeyya) because offerings made to them yield valuable results. They are also referred to as the ’incomparable field of merit’,¹⁸ because they are a source of virtue to blossom and spread in the world.¹⁹ {406}

People give suitable remuneration to ordinary teachers; is it not appropriate for people to give simple gifts to those who teach virtue and the ways of truth? In today’s society people whose business causes destruction – harming the economy, the environment, or even human goodness – receive all sorts of lavish rewards.²⁰ Is it not right that those who protect the world and protect virtue by being moderate in consumption should receive support? Those who consume only what is necessary have minimal impact on the world’s resources; they take little and give much in return.

The making of offerings differs from ordinary giving; one does not give out of personal affection, obligation, or an expectation to get something in return. One gives with faith in the power of goodness, appreciating that the recipient is a member of the Buddhist monastic community (saṅgha), or that he or she upholds virtue. In any case, the recipient must possess the necessary qualities to be entitled to these offerings. For example, an unenlightened monk or novice who eats the almsfood of lay-supporters is ’indebted’, despite having moral conduct and making effort in Dhamma practice. He should hasten to free himself from this debt by achieving the state of a dakkhiṇeyya-puggala. Ven. Mahā Kassapa, for example, claimed that he was in debt to the laypeople for seven days, between being ordained and realizing arahantship.²¹ After his ordination he made effort in Dhamma practice as an unawakened person for seven days, before reaching the fruit of arahantship and becoming one worthy of the offerings by the faithful laypeople.

The commentaries categorize monks and novices who receive offerings in four ways:

1. Those who behave immorally. They do not have the inner qualities fitting for a mendicant and merely wear the outward signs of a monk. They are undeserving of offerings; their use of offerings is called theyya-paribhoga: ’to consume as a thief’.

2. Those who have moral conduct but do not reflect with wisdom when using the four requisites. For example, when eating almsfood they neglect to consider: ’I eat not for pleasure or beautification. I use almsfood only for the maintenance and nourishment of this body, to keep it healthy, to sustain the holy life.’ Such use of offerings is called iṇa-paribhoga: ’to consume as a debtor’.²² {407}

3. Sekha, or the first seven of the eight dakkhiṇeyya-puggala (see below). Their use of offerings is called dāyajja-paribhoga: ’to consume as heirs’. They have the right to use these offerings as heirs to the Buddha, who was supreme among the dakkhiṇeyya-puggala.

4. Arahants, who are freed from the enslavement of craving. Their virtue makes them truly worthy of offerings. Their use of offerings is called sāmi-paribhoga: ’to consume as masters’.²³

Here we can see that the term dakkhiṇeyya is used in both social and economic contexts. The principle of offerings (and to some extent the principle of generosity) fits into the wider principle of the Buddhist social structure, of having an independent group of individuals (the monastic sangha) within a wider society. These individuals gain their independence by not seeking benefits from society and not being directly involved in other social institutions. They have their own way of life based on spiritual freedom. They support society by transmitting the Dhamma, without seeking recompense for their work. They live on offerings by members of the wider society, who give out of devotion to the Dhamma in order to preserve the teachings and purify themselves of unwholesome qualities like greed. Offering this support has minimal financial impact on the supporters’ lives.

The recipients (the monastic sangha) are like bees who collect pollen from various flowers to make honey and build their hives, without damaging even the fragrance or complexion of the flowers.²⁴ Indeed, they fertilize the flowers. Because they depend on others to live, they have an obligation to act for the welfare and happiness of all. Although their life depends on others it does not depend on anyone in particular; they rely on the public and in a sense belong to the public, but are subject to no single individual.

In a well-organized society no one should be destitute and forced to beg.²⁵ In such a society religious mendicants live on the offerings of others but the receiving of alms has no resemblance to begging. This system of an independent community that is devoted to spiritual values and provides a necessary balance to the wider society is unique among social systems in the world.

There are generally two ways to categorize dakkhiṇeyya-puggala or ariya-puggala: into the eight levels of eradicating defilements (the eight levels of path and fruit mentioned above), and into the seven qualities or practices that enable the attainment of those eight levels. (The first of these classifications is presented below; the second classification is presented in a following section.)²⁶ {408}

Eight Noble Beings

This division is associated with the ten ’fetters’ (saṁyojana), which are abandoned at different levels of awakening, and with the development of the threefold training (sikkhā) of moral conduct, concentration, and wisdom. The ten fetters are those defilements that bind beings to suffering in the round of rebirth, similar to yokes that bind an animal to a wagon:²⁷

The eight dakkhiṇeyya-puggala or ariya-puggala can be classified into four types or stages, which are related to the fetters in the following way:³⁰

Sekha, translated as ’learners’ or ’trainees’, must apply themselves to sever the fetters and realize the gradual stages up to arahantship. Asekha, the arahants, are adepts; they have gone beyond training. They have finished their spiritual work and eradicated all defilements. They have reached the greatest good; there is no higher spiritual realization for which to strive.

Sa-upādisesa-puggala are equivalent to the first three dakkhiṇeyya-puggala above. They still have upādi (’fuel’), that is, they still have upādāna (’grasping’) – they still have mental impurities. Anupādisesa-puggala, the arahants, are free from grasping and impurity. Note that upādi here is translated as synonymous with upādāna (’grasping’).³⁴ This differs from the upādi in sa-upādisesa-nibbāna and anupādisesa-nibbāna, which translates as ’that which is grasped’, i.e. the five aggregates. {410} The equating of upādi with upādāna corresponds with the Buddha’s teachings on essential spiritual factors, for example the Four Foundations of Mindfulness (sati-paṭṭhāna), the Four Ways of Success (iddhi-pāda), and the Five Faculties (indriya), which often end with the encouragement that one can expect one of two results from cultivating these factors: either arahantship in this very life, or if there is a residue of clinging, the state of non-returning.³⁵ The term upādi in these contexts refers to upādāna or generally to mental defilement (kilesa).

The eight noble beings are precisely these four ariya-puggala described above, but each level of awakening is subdivided as a pair:³⁶

1. Stream-enterer (one who has realized the fruit of stream-entry).

2. One practising to realize stream-entry.

3. Once-returner (one who has realized the fruit of once-returning).

4. One practising to realize once-returning.

5. Non-returner (one who has realized the fruit of non-returning).

6. One practising to realize non-returning.

7. Arahant (one who has realized the fruit of arahantship).

8. One practising to realize arahantship. (See Note Translations of Pairs)

These four pairs of noble beings are known as the sāvaka-saṅgha, the disciples of the Buddha who are considered exemplary human beings and comprise one of the three ’jewels’ (ratana) in Buddhism. The chant in praise of the Sangha includes: ’The four pairs, the eight kinds of noble beings; these are the Blessed One’s disciples’ (yadidaṁ cattāri purisayugāni aṭṭha purisapuggalā esa bhagavato sāvaka-saṅgho).³⁷

In the scriptures, these disciples of the Buddha are later referred to as the ’noble sangha’ (ariya-saṅgha). In the older texts, the term ariya-saṅgha is used only once as a synonym for sāvaka-saṅgha, in a verse of the Aṅguttara-Nikāya.³⁸ In the commentaries it is used frequently, especially in the Visuddhimagga.³⁹ When the term ariya-saṅgha gained popularity over sāvaka-saṅgha, the term sammati-saṅgha was used to refer to the bhikkhu-saṅgha. Sammati-saṅgha means the agreed-upon or authorized sangha, referring to any gathering of more than three bhikkhus. These terms are often paired: sāvaka-saṅgha with bhikkhu-saṅgha, and ariya-saṅgha with sammati-saṅgha. In any case the terms ariya-saṅgha and sammati-saṅgha do not contradict the older terms and offer a valuable perspective on the meaning of the word ’sangha’. {411}

Attributes of an Arahant

{343} The teaching of Buddhism is practical and emphasizes things that lead to insight and wellbeing.⁴⁰ Buddhism does not encourage conceptualizing and debating over things that should be realised through practical application, unless it is necessary for basic understanding. In relation to the study of Nibbāna, rather than discussing the state of Nibbāna directly, it may be of more value to study those persons who have realized Nibbāna, as well as the benefits of realization apparent in the life and character of such persons.⁴¹

We can gain some insight into the nature of arahants by looking at the epithets used for them in the scriptures. Here is a selection of these epithets, which express appreciation for their virtue, purity, excellence, and degree of spiritual attainment:

• Anuppatta-sadattha: one who has attained wellbeing.

• Arahant: ’worthy one’; a person far from mental defilement.

• Asekha: one who has finished training; a person not requiring training; a person possessing the qualities of an adept (asekha-dhamma).

• Kata-karaṇīya: a person who has done what had to be done.

• Khīṇāsava: a person free from mental taints (āsava).

• Mahāpurisa: a person great in virtue; one who acts for the welfare of the manyfolk; one who has self-mastery.

• Ohitabhāra: one who has laid down the burden.

• Parama-kusala: a person possessing superior wholesome qualities.

• Parikkhīṇa-bhava-saṁyojana: one who has destroyed the fetters (saṁyojana), which bind people to existence.

• Sammadaññā-vimutta: a person released through consummate knowledge.

• Sampanna-kusala: a person perfected in wholesomeness.

• Uttama-purisa: a supreme person; a most excellent person.

• Vusitavant or vusita brahmacariya: a person who has fulfilled the holy life. {344}

Many other terms were originally used by other religious traditions, but their meaning was altered to accord with the essential principles of Dhammavinaya, for example:

• Ariya (or ariya-puggala): a noble person; an excellent person; a person who has developed non-violence towards all beings. Originally, this term referred to members of the first three castes or to those who are ’noble’ (Aryan) by birth.

• Brāhmaṇa: a ’true brahmin’; a person who has passed beyond evil by abandoning all unwholesome qualities. Originally, this term referred to members of the highest caste.

• Dakkhiṇeyya: one worthy of offerings. Originally, this term referred to those brahmins who were worthy of a reward for conducting sacrifices.

• Kevalī or kebalī: a ’whole’ person; a ’complete’ person. Originally, this term referred to the highest individual in the Jain religion.

• Nahātaka: one who has been ’ceremoniously bathed’; one who has ’bathed in the Dhamma’; one who has purified his or her volitional actions (kamma); one who is a refuge for all beings. Originally, this term referred to a brahmin who passed through a ritual of bathing and was elevated in status.

• Samaṇa: a tranquil person; one who has quelled the defilements. Originally, this term referred to renunciants in general.

• Vedagū: a person who has arrived at knowledge; one who is well-versed in knowledge and who is released from attachment to feeling (vedanā). Originally, this term referred to a brahmin who had finished studying the three Vedas.⁴²

To understand the nature of an arahant it is necessary to consider the epithets in the context of the teachings in which they are mentioned, for example: the Three Taints (āsava), the Three Trainings (sikkhā), the Ten Qualities of an Adept (asekha-dhamma), the Ten Fetters (saṁyojana), and the holy life (brahmacariya) as the Eightfold Path.

Many Buddhists tend to describe the attributes of an arahant and of other awakened beings from a perspective of negation, by determining those defilements that have been abandoned or dispelled. For example, a stream-enterer has eliminated the first three fetters (saṁyojana); a once-returner has eliminated these three fetters and further attenuated greed, hatred, and delusion; a non-returner has eliminated the first five fetters; and an arahant has eliminated all ten fetters. Alternatively, they define an arahant briefly as ’one who is without greed, hatred and delusion’ or ’one who is free from defilement’. Such definitions are useful in that they are clear and provide simple standards of evaluation. But they are limited; they do not clearly demonstrate the exceptional characteristics and prominent features of awakened beings, nor do they describe how such beings live virtuous lives and benefit the world at large.

In fact, there are many terms and passages describing the characteristics of an arahant in affirmative ways. Many descriptions or explanations of arahants, however, cover a wide range of subject material, making it difficult to summarize the positive attributes in a clearly defined, well-ordered way. Otherwise, they recount specific incidents and individuals, but do not describe attributes common to all arahants.

An important term in this context is bhāvitatta, which is literally translated as ’one who has developed himself’ or ’one who is self-developed’.⁴³ This term is used for all arahants: the Buddha, the Silent Buddhas (pacceka-buddhā), and all arahant disciples of the Buddha. For example, in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, while the Buddha is travelling to the place of his final passing away, he is referred to as the ’Developed One’. {345}

A similar expression is found in the question by the brahmin student Mettagū:

The Buddha compared a ’fully developed one’ – an arahant who is well-versed in the Dhamma (bahussuta) – to a clever ship captain, who is able to guide many people across the seas and reach their destination in safety, as is illustrated in the Nāvā Sutta:

The Loka Sutta is similar to the previous sutta, but covers a broader subject matter, as is evident from the following passage:

Note, however, that this term bhāvitatta is most often used in poetic verses, rather than in prose. This is most likely because it is concise and can be used easily in verse as a replacement for longer, more drawn-out terms and phrases. Another reason why this short term bhāvitatta tends not to be used in prose is because its meaning is not clearly defined. As there are not the same limitations in prose as there are in poetic composition, longer terms and phrases can be used for the sake of clarity.

At this point it is useful to ask what terms and phrases are used in prose instead of the term bhāvitatta. To answer this question let us look at an explanation found in the Tipiṭaka. The thirtieth volume of the Tipiṭaka – the Cūḷaniddesa – which is considered to be a collection of teachings by the ’commander’ and chief disciple Ven. Sāriputta, elucidates some of the Buddha’s suttas contained in the Suttanipāta. One passage in the Cūḷaniddesa explains the term bhāvitatta as it appears in the question by the brahmin student Mettagū, cited above: {347}

Now let us look at a prose passage by the Buddha describing the four areas of self-mastery (bhāvita), which are considered an expansion on the concept of an ’adept’ (bhāvitatta):

This aforementioned teaching by the Buddha is connected to some essential Dhamma principles:

Bhāvitatta⁴⁹ is a ’word of praise’ (guṇa-pada), a term describing the virtue or superior quality of the Buddha and the arahants, as those who have developed themselves and completed their spiritual training. When one expands on the meaning of this term into the fourfold mastery of physical development (bhāvita-kāya), moral development (bhāvita-sīla), mental development (bhāvita-citta), and wisdom development (bhāvita-paññā), this pertains to the teaching on the four kinds of cultivation (bhāvanā): cultivation of the body (kāya-bhāvanā), virtuous conduct (sīla-bhāvanā), the mind (citta-bhāvanā), and wisdom (paññā-bhāvanā).

Here, one needs to know some fundamentals of the Pali language. The term bhāvita is used either as an adjective or an adverb, describing the qualities of an individual. The term bhāvanā, on the other hand, is a noun, describing an action, a principle, or a form of practice. There is a compatibility between these terms in that bhāvita refers to someone who has fully engaged in bhāvanā. Therefore, one who is developed in body (bhāvita-kāya) has engaged in physical cultivation (kāya-bhāvanā), one who is developed in virtuous conduct (bhāvita-sīla) has engaged in moral cultivation (sīla-bhāvanā), one who is developed in mind (bhāvita-citta) has engaged in mental cultivation (citta-bhāvanā), and one who is developed in wisdom (bhāvita-paññā) has engaged in wisdom cultivation (paññā-bhāvanā).

This is equivalent to saying that an arahant is one who has completed the fourfold cultivation: he or she is accomplished in physical cultivation, moral cultivation, mental cultivation, and wisdom cultivation.

To clarify this matter, here is a brief description of the four kinds of cultivation (bhāvanā):

1. Physical cultivation (kāya-bhāvanā): physical development; to develop one’s relationship to surrounding material things (including technology) or to the body itself. In particular, to cognize things by way of the five faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body) skilfully, by relating to them in a way that is beneficial, does not cause harm, increases wholesome qualities, and dispels unwholesome qualities.

2. Moral cultivation (sīla-bhāvanā): development of virtuous conduct; to develop one’s behaviour and one’s social relationships, by keeping to a moral code, by not abusing or injuring others or causing conflict, and by living in harmony with others and supporting one another. {349}

3. Mental cultivation (citta-bhāvanā): to develop the mind; to strengthen and stabilize the mind; to cultivate wholesome qualities, like lovingkindness, compassion, enthusiasm, diligence, and patience; to make the mind concentrated, bright, joyous, and clear.

4. Wisdom cultivation (paññā-bhāvanā): to develop and increase wisdom until there arises a comprehensive understanding of truth, by knowing things as they are and by gaining a clear insight into the world and into phenomena. At this stage one is able to free the mind, purify oneself from mental defilement, and be liberated from suffering. One lives, acts, and solves problems with penetrative awareness.

When one understands the meaning of bhāvanā (’cultivation’), which lies at the heart of the aforementioned ways of practice, one also understands the term bhāvita (’adept’), which is an attribute of those who have completed their spiritual practice and fulfilled the fours kinds of cultivation:

1. Physical mastery (bhāvita-kāya): this refers to those who have developed the body, that is, they have developed a relationship to their physical environment and to their physical bodies; they have a healthy, contented, and respectful relationship to things and to nature; in particular, they experience things by way of the five senses, say by seeing or hearing, mindfully and in a way that fosters wisdom. They consume things with moderation, deriving their true benefit and value. They are not obsessed or led astray by the influence of preferences and aversions. They are not heedless; rather than allowing sense stimuli to cause harm, they use them for benefit; rather than being dominated by unwholesome states of mind, these individuals nurture wholesome states.

2. Moral mastery (bhāvita-sīla): this refers to those who have developed virtuous conduct and developed their behaviour. They act virtuously in regard to society, by keeping to a moral code and living harmoniously with others. They do not use physical actions, speech, or their livelihood to oppress others or to create conflict, but instead they use these activities for self-development, for assisting others, and for building a healthy society.

3. Mental mastery (bhāvita-citta): this refers to those who have developed their minds. As a result, their minds are lucid, bright, spacious, joyous and happy. Their minds are full of virtuous qualities, like goodwill, compassion, confidence, gratitude, generosity, perseverance, fortitude, patient endurance, tranquillity, stability, mindfulness, and concentration.

4. Wisdom mastery (bhāvita-paññā): this refers to those who have trained in and developed wisdom, resulting in an understanding of the truth and a clear discernment of things according to how they really are. They apply wisdom to solve problems, to dispel suffering, and to purify themselves from mental impurities. Their hearts are liberated and free from affliction.

A noteworthy passage in this sutta is where the Buddha states that those monks who have failed to fully develop their body, virtuous conduct, mind, and wisdom, will become preceptors and teachers, but will be unable to guide their pupils in higher virtue, higher mind, and higher wisdom (i.e. in moral conduct – sīla, concentration – samādhi, and wisdom – paññā).

It is interesting that, when describing the qualities of a teacher, the Buddha mentions the four kinds of self-mastery (bhāvita), but when he describes the subject of study – the teaching or the principles of practice – he mentions the threefold training, of moral conduct, concentration, and wisdom. (In full, these are referred to as the ’training in higher virtue’ – adhisīla-sikkhā, the ’training in higher mind’ – adhicitta-sikkhā, and the ’training in higher wisdom’ – adhipaññā-sikkhā.)

This distinction may raise several doubts. First, why doesn’t the Buddha use complementary or corresponding terms here? Wouldn’t it have made more sense for him to say that one who is not fully developed (bhāvita) in the four ways is unable to guide someone else in the fourfold cultivation (bhāvanā), or conversely, one who has not completed the threefold training is unable to guide someone else in moral conduct, concentration, and wisdom? {350}

Moreover, the factors in these teachings are nearly identical. The dual teaching on cultivation (bhāvanā) and self-mastery (bhāvita) contains the four factors of body, virtuous conduct, mind, and wisdom. The Threefold Training, on the other hand, contains the factors of virtuous conduct, concentration (i.e. ’mind’ – citta), and wisdom. Therefore, wouldn’t it have been less confusing if the Buddha had stuck to one or the other of these two teachings, rather than combine them?

Many Buddhists are familiar with the sequence of practice of sīla, samādhi, and paññā, and this threefold practice is considered to be complete in itself. They are generally unfamiliar, however, with this extra factor of ’body’ (kāya), and may wonder why it is added and what it means.

Here, let us simply conclude that the Buddha presented these two distinct teachings in the same context: in reference to the attributes of a teacher he mentioned the fourfold self-mastery (bhāvita), while in reference to the subject of teaching he mentioned the threefold training (sikkhā).

A simple, short answer for why the Buddha used these two distinct teachings in the same context is that they have different objectives or goals. The teaching on the attributes of a teacher aims to describe the discernible characteristics of a teacher, in the manner of evaluating whether someone has completed spiritual training and is ready to teach others. The teaching on the subject of study on the other hand aims to describe the content and system of practice – to describe what and how to train in order to obtain desirable results.

Most importantly, a true study or training entails a natural process of developing one’s life; this process accords with laws of nature and therefore the system of training must be established correctly in harmony with causes and conditions found in nature.

Let us first examine the subject of study, i.e. the threefold training. Why is this training composed of only three factors? Again, one can answer this simply by saying that this training pertains to the life of human beings which has three facets or three spheres of activity. These three factors combine to make up a person’s life, and they proceed and are developed in unison.

These three factors are as follows:

1. Communication and interaction with the world: perceptions, relationships, association, behaviour, and responses vis-à-vis other people and external objects by way of the dvāra – the doorways or channels – which can be described in two ways:

   1. Doorways of cognition (phassa-dvāra): the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body (combined with the meeting point of the mind, these comprise six doorways).⁵⁰

   2. Doorways of volitional action (kamma-dvāra): body and speech (combined with the meeting point of the mind, these comprise three doorways).

   This factor can be simply called ’interaction with the world’ and represented by the word sīla (’conduct’).

2. The mind: the activity of the mind, which has numerous attendant factors and properties. To begin with, one must have intention, also referred to as volition, deliberation, determination, or motivation. Moreover, people’s minds usually contain positive and negative qualities, strengths and weaknesses. The mind experiences feelings of pleasure and discomfort, ease and dis-ease, and feelings of indifference and complacency. There are reactions to these sensations, like pleasure and aversion, and desires to acquire, obtain, flee, or get rid of, which influence how one experiences things and how one acts, for example whether one looks at something or not, what one chooses to say, and to whom one speaks. This factor is simply called the ’mind’ (citta) or the domain of concentration (samādhi). {351}

3. Wisdom: knowledge and understanding, beginning with suta – knowledge acquired through formal education or by way of the news media – up to and including all forms of development in the domain of thought (cintā-visaya) and the domain of knowledge (ñāṇa-visaya), including: ideas, views, beliefs, attitudes, values, attachments to various ideas and forms of understanding, and specific perspectives and points of view. This factor is called ’wisdom’ (paññā).

These three factors operate in unison; they are interconnected and interdependent. A person’s interaction with the world by way of the sense faculties – by way of the doorways of cognition – and through physical and verbal behaviour (factor #1) is dependent on intention, feelings, and various other conditions in the mind (factor #2). And this entire process is dependent on the guidance by wisdom and intelligence (factor #3). The extent of one’s knowledge determines the range of one’s thoughts and actions.

Similarly, the mental factors of say determination and desire (factor #2) rely on an interaction by way of the sense faculties and physical and verbal behaviour (factor #1) in order to be fulfilled and satisfied. And this process is determined and regulated by one’s beliefs, thoughts, and understanding (factor #3), which are subject to change and adjustment.

Again, the operation and development of wisdom (factor #3) depends on the sense faculties, say of seeing or hearing, depends on the movement of the body, say of walking, organizing, seeking, seizing, etc., and applies speech to communicate and inquire (factor #1). And this process relies on mental properties, for example: interest, desire, fortitude, perseverance, circumspection, mindfulness, tranquillity, and concentration (factor #2).

The nature of human life consists of these three interrelated, interdependent factors. They make up an integrated whole, which cannot be added to or subtracted from. As life consists of these three factors, any training designed to help people to live their lives well must address the development of these three areas of life.

Spiritual training is thus divided into three sections, known as the threefold training. This training is designed to develop these three areas of life to be complete and in harmony with nature. These three factors are developed simultaneously and in unison, resulting in an integrated system of practice.

From a rough perspective one may see these three factors in a similar way as to how they are sometimes outlined in the scriptures, of representing three major stages in practice, of moral conduct, concentration, and wisdom. This perspective gives the appearance that one practices these factors as distinct steps and in an ordered sequence, that is, after training in moral conduct one develops concentration, which is then followed by wisdom development.

By viewing the threefold training in this way one sees a system of practice in which three factors are prominent at different stages, beginning with a coarse factor and leading to more refined factors as one progresses through the stages:

• The first stage (moral conduct) gives prominence to the relationship to one’s external environment, to the sense faculties, and to physical actions and speech.

• The second stage (concentration) gives prominence to a person’s inner life, to the mind.

• The third stage (wisdom) gives prominence to knowledge and understanding.

Note, however, that at each stage the other two remaining factors always function and participate. {352}

This perspective provides an overview, in which one focuses on the chief activity at each stage of the process. One gives prominence to each of the three factors respectively, so that coarser factors are ready to support the growth and promote success of more refined factors.

Take for example the task of cutting down a large tree. First, one must prepare the surrounding area so that one is able to move about easily, safely, and securely (= sīla). Second, one must prepare one’s strength, courage, mindfulness, resolve, non-distractedness, and skill in handling an axe (= samādhi). Third, one must have a proper tool, like a good quality sharpened axe of the correct size (= paññā). If one fulfils these three requirements one succeeds in cutting down the tree.

In regard to one’s regular, daily life, however, a closer analysis reveals that these three factors are constantly functioning in an interrelated, interdependent way. Therefore, in order for people to truly engage in effective spiritual practice, one should encourage them to be aware of these three factors. They should develop these factors in unison, by including skilful reflection (yoniso-manasikāra), which helps to increase understanding, and mindfulness (sati), which helps to bring about true success.

In terms of one’s spiritual practice, no matter what activity one is involved in, one is able to inspect and train oneself according to the principles of the threefold training. One thus aims to engage in all three of these factors – virtuous conduct, concentration, and wisdom – simultaneously and in all situations. When involved in an activity, one considers whether one’s actions result in the affliction or distress of others, whether they cause harm, or whether they are conducive to assistance, support, encouragement, and development of others (= sīla). During such activities, what is the state of one’s mind? Is one acting out of selfishness, malice, greed, hatred, or delusion, or is one acting say with kindness, well-wishing, faith, mindfulness, effort, and a sense of responsibility? While engaged in an activity, is the mind agitated, anxious, confused, and depressed, or is it calm, happy, joyous, content, and bright? (= samādhi). When engaged in an activity, does one act with clear understanding? Does one discern its purpose, objective and related principles? Does one recognize its potential benefits and drawbacks, and fully understand the way to adjust and improve the activity? (= paññā).

In this way skilled persons are able to train and inspect themselves, and evaluate their practice, at all times and in all situations. They cultivate all three factors of the threefold training in a single activity.

Meanwhile, the development of the threefold training from the perspective of three distinct stages unfolds automatically. From one perspective a person develops the threefold training in an ordered sequence. But from another perspective the simultaneous, unified practice of these three factors is taking place and assisting in the successful advancement of the so-called ’three-stage’ training.

In this context, someone who delves deeply into the details of spiritual practice will know that at the moment of awakening – at the moment of realizing Path, Fruit, and Nibbāna – all eight factors of the Noble Path, which are classified into the three groups of sīla, samādhi, and paññā, are completed and operate as one, acting to eliminate the defilements and to bring about fulfilment. {353}

To sum up, the system of Buddhist spiritual training – the threefold training (tisso sikkhā) – is based on a relationship between requisite factors and accords with specific laws of nature. Human life consists of three factors – of conduct with the outside world (sīla), mental activities (citta), and understanding (paññā) – which act in unison and are interdependent in bringing about spiritual development.

When describing the principles of spiritual practice, the Buddha referred to these three aspects of training (sikkhā). We now arrive back at the question: ’Why did the Buddha adopt a new model of the fourfold self-mastery (bhāvita) when he described the attributes of a teacher?’

As mentioned earlier, this question can be answered easily by saying that these two models have different aims and objectives. The threefold training is to be applied in real life – to be practised in accord with a system in harmony with nature. The four factors of self-mastery are intended for self-examination. Here, one need not be concerned with the order of nature. The emphasis here is on getting a clear picture of one’s personal qualities. If one discerns these clearly, they will by their very nature be connected to the three factors of training.

This is obvious by inspecting the first factor of sīla, which refers to one’s interaction and communication with the world, one’s apprehension of the world, and one’s actions in relation to the world.

As mentioned above, we interact with the world by way of two sets of ’doorways’ (dvāra): the first set entails the doorways of cognition (phassa-dvāra), usually referred to as the sense faculties (indriya) – our awareness of the world by way of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body. The second set entails the doorways of volitional action (kamma-dvāra), through which we act towards and respond to the world (towards people, towards society, and towards other objects in our external environment) by physical and verbal gestures.

Here lies the distinction. In regard to interacting with the world, at any one moment (or to speak at a more refined level, at any one mind-moment) we only communicate with the world through one of the specific doorways, and one can examine this process by applying either of the two sets of doorways.

In respect to the threefold training, in which sīla, samādhi and paññā are part of an integrated system, the interaction with the world by way of any one of the various doorways comprises the training in ’conduct’ (sīla); the factors of the mind (samādhi) and understanding (paññā) constitute distinct factors. The entire interaction with the world through the various doorways – both the doorways of cognition and the doorways of volitional action – is included here in the factor of sīla. For this reason the threefold training consists of three factors.

In respect to the attributes of a teacher, one need not consider the integrated functioning of the three factors contained in the threefold training. Here, one is distinguishing between different factors for the purpose of investigation. It is precisely here at the factor of conduct (sīla) where a separation is made, that is, one distinguishes a person’s interaction with the world according to one or the other of the two sets of doorways:

1. Doorways of cognition (phassa-dvāra; usually referred to as the sense faculties – indriya): the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body (along with the meeting point of the mind, these comprise six doorways); these doorways enable seeing/looking, hearing/listening, smelling, tasting, and tangible contact (culminating at the mind as cognition of mental objects – dhammārammaṇa).

2. Doorways of volitional action (kamma-dvāra): body and speech (along with the meeting point of the mind, these comprise three doorways); these enable physical actions and speech (and by designating the starting point of volitional action – the mind – this also includes thinking).

The Buddha separated these two subsidiary factors of conduct (sīla), determining them as the first two factors in the fourfold self-mastery (bhāvita). He distinguished the first factor, of interaction with the world by way of the doorways of cognition or the sense faculties, and labeled it as ’mastery of the body’ (bhāvita-kāya). (The term ’body’ – kāya – here refers to the ’collection of five doorways’ – pañcadvārika-kāya). The Buddha thus gave great emphasis to one’s interaction with the world, in particular to cognition by way of the five senses. {354} People tend to overlook this first factor, but in relation to spiritual practice it is considered of paramount importance in Buddhism, especially in regard to measuring a person’s development.

This is particularly relevant to the present era, which is referred to as the Age of Information or the IT Age. The development of people in regard to this factor determines the fork in the road between direct wisdom cultivation and getting bogged down in delusion. This principle of ’physical development’ can be used as a sign warning people from losing their way, and encouraging them to use information technology to advance civilization in a proper direction.

In terms of measuring people’s spiritual development, the second subsidiary factor, of interacting with the world by way of the doorways of volitional action (kamma-dvāra), constitutes ’moral self-mastery’ (bhāvita-sīla), and is equivalent to the second part of the training in higher virtue (adhisīla-sikkhā). ’Mental mastery’ (bhāvita-citta) and ’wisdom mastery’ (bhāvita-paññā) correspond to the training in higher mind (adhicitta-sikkhā) and the training in higher wisdom (adhipaññā-sikkhā), respectively.

Note that this concept of ’physical mastery’ (bhāvita-kāya), which here has been defined as a development of one’s interaction with the world by way of the five sense faculties, is sometimes explained differently, by defining the term kāya literally as the ’body’ or as referring to material objects.

If one expands the meaning of bhāvita-kāya in this alternative way, then the definition of the second factor of ’moral self-mastery’ (bhāvita-sīla) is adjusted accordingly, as follows: ’moral mastery’ refers to the cultivation of one’s relationship to other human beings or to one’s engagement with society, to promoting peaceful coexistence, cooperation, harmony, and mutual support.

These alternative definitions of these two factors are connected to the teaching on fourfold virtuous conduct – on the four kinds of ’pure conduct classified as virtue’ (pārisuddhi-sīla):

1. Pāṭimokkhasaṁvara-sīla: virtue as restraint in regard to the Pāṭimokkha, the chief disciplinary code of the monastic sangha.

2. Indriyasaṁvara-sīla: virtue as sense restraint; to receive sense impressions, like sights and sounds, mindfully, in a way conducive to wisdom and true benefit, and not to be dominated by unwholesome mind states.

3. Ājīvapārisuddhi-sīla: virtue as purity of livelihood: to earn one’s living righteously and in a pure manner.

4. Paccayapaṭisevana-sīla (or paccayasannissita-sīla): to use the four requisites wisely, benefiting from them by understanding their true purpose and value; to live and consume in moderation; not to consume with craving.

Those aspects pertaining to one’s relationship to the world by way of the body, or to one’s engagement with material objects and with nature, are part of the factor on ’physical mastery’ (bhāvita-kāya). Those aspects pertaining to one’s relationship to society or to one’s community are part of the factor on ’moral mastery’ (bhāvita-sīla).⁵¹

Having introduced these principles, the following description of the attributes of arahants corresponds to the teaching on the fourfold self-mastery (bhāvita): being fully developed in body, moral conduct, mind, and wisdom.

Be aware, however, that, although these four kinds of attributes are distinguished from one another, they are not completely separate. Their main features are highlighted for the purpose of understanding, but in the actual process of development they are interconnected and are cultivated in an integrated way. In particular, they are never independent from wisdom. {355}

Physical Self-Mastery (bhāvita-kāya)

Although there are many passages in the Tipiṭaka in which the Buddha mentions the term bhāvita-kāya, there are no explicit explanations of this term, as if the listeners always understood its meaning. There were occasions, however, when non-Buddhists, especially members of the Nigaṇṭhā order, spoke about this subject according to their own understanding, and the Buddha duly responded.

The Mahāsaccaka Sutta, for example, contains an account of such a conversation, in which the terms bhāvita-kāya and bhāvita-citta are discussed:

One morning, the famous Nigaṇṭhā named Saccaka (he was a teacher of the Licchavi princes in Vajjī) travelled to where the Buddha was staying, and engaged him in conversation. He began by speaking about physical cultivation (kāya-bhāvanā) and mental cultivation (citta-bhāvanā). He told the Buddha that according to his opinion the Buddha’s disciples only strive in the area of mental cultivation, but they do not engage in physical cultivation. The commentaries state that the reason Saccaka held this view is that he observed the bhikkhus going off in search of seclusion, but that they did not practise severe austerities.

After he had stated his opinion, the Buddha replied by asking him what, according to his learning, is the meaning of ’physical cultivation’ (kāya-bhāvanā). Saccaka answered by defining it as the practice of severe austerities and self-mortification (atta-kilamathānuyoga).

The Buddha went on to ask him about his understanding of ’mental cultivation’ (citta-bhāvanā), yet Saccaka was unable to provide an explanation. The Buddha continued by saying that Saccaka’s understanding of physical cultivation is incompatible with the cultivation as found in the noble ones’ discipline (ariya-vinaya). Failing to understand the meaning of physical cultivation, how could one possibly understand mental cultivation? He then bid Saccaka to listen to his explanation on what is not physical and mental cultivation, and conversely, what is truly physical and mental cultivation:

As mentioned above, the principal meaning of ’physical cultivation’ (kāya-bhāvanā) is the development of the ’collection of five doorways’ (pañcadvārika-kāya), that is, of the five faculties (indriya): the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body. Therefore, ’physical cultivation’ (kāya-bhāvanā) is essentially identical to the cultivation of the sense faculties (indriya-bhāvanā).

The development of the sense faculties begins with sense restraint (indriya-saṁvara), to which the Buddha gave great emphasis in the training for those who have ’gone forth’ in the Dhammavinaya. Sense restraint is a fundamental practice, linked with the training in virtuous conduct (sīla). (In the commentaries, sense restraint is often classified as a form of virtuous conduct, as ’virtue as sense restraint’ – indriyasaṁvara-sīla.) Let us have a look at this basic principle:

Sense restraint still belongs to the practice of a ’trainee’, or is a rudimentary stage of practice. It is not a necessary practice for an arahant, who has ’gained mastery over the sense faculties’ (bhāvitindriya, which is classified as part of bhāvita-kāya). It is included in the discussion here, however, to demonstrate the various stages of practice.

There is a more profound form of sense restraint, or another way of explaining this term, as is evident from a discussion the Buddha had with the wanderer Kuṇḍaliya at Añjanavana in Sāketa. (The cultivation of this form of sense restraint fulfils the three kinds of good conduct – sucarita; the cultivation of the three kinds of good conduct fulfils the Four Foundations of Mindfulness; the cultivation of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness fulfils the seven factors of enlightenment; the cultivation of the seven factors of enlightenment fulfils true knowledge and deliverance, the highest blessing):

Now let us examine a higher stage of practice – the cultivation of the sense faculties (indriya-bhāvanā) – which is described in the Indriyabhāvanā Sutta. After describing this form of practice, this sutta also distinguishes between the term sekha-pāṭipada, referring to an awakened person who is still a trainee, and the term bhāvitindriya, referring to an arahant, who has completed his or her spiritual training and is ’fully developed in body’ (bhāvita-kāya): {357}

On one occasion the Buddha was staying at the bamboo grove in Kajaṅgala, and he was visited by Uttara, a disciple of the brahmin Pārāsariya.⁵⁵ The Buddha asked him whether Pārāsariya taught the cultivation of the sense faculties (indriya-bhāvanā) to his disciples. When Uttara replied that he did, the Buddha asked him in what manner does he teach on developing the sense faculties. Uttara replied that Pārāsariya teaches to avoid having the eye see material forms and having the ear hear sounds. The Buddha answered that following this line of reasoning a blind or deaf person has ’mastered the sense faculties’ (bhāvitindriya).

The Buddha went on to say that the development of the senses as taught by Pārāsariya is different from the supreme cultivation of the senses in the discipline of the noble ones (ariya-vinaya). Ven. Ānanda then asked the Buddha to explain this supreme cultivation of the senses:

As mentioned earlier, by expanding on their meanings or by changing the focus of investigation, there are alternative definitions for the terms kāya-bhāvanā and bhāvita-kāya. Instead of focusing on the doorways of cognition or on the sense faculties, the focus shifts to the world at large or to external objects which come into contact with the senses – the objects of cognition. One then distinguishes between these various sense objects. By doing this the definition of ’physical development’ becomes the development of one’s relationship to one’s surroundings by way of one’s physical body, or the development of one’s relationship to material things (including other human beings in their capacity as objects of cognition).

One group of objects that people engage with to a great degree are the four requisites (paccaya): food, clothing, shelter, and medicine. By extension this group also includes all the other material things, consumable objects, tools and appliances used in work, etc., which comprise a large part of our interaction with the outside world. This area of a person’s life requires discipline and training, as one can see from the teaching on moral conduct related to a wise use of the four requisites (paccayapaṭisevana-sīla). A wise use of material requisites, like sense restraint, may thus be included in the factor of physical development (kāya-bhāvanā).

In the Dhammavinaya, the relationship to material things that nourish and sustain life is considered an essential part of training. People are able to develop this relationship constantly in everyday life. This form of training is set down from the onset for those individuals ordained as monks and nuns, of reflecting wisely on the use of the four requisites, and by developing a sense of moderation, which leads to contentment and generates true blessings. This stands in contrast to consuming things with only a foggy understanding and seeking to gratify one’s craving: {359}

Of these four requisites, lodging (senāsana; literally ’place for sitting and lying down’) is highly significant, both as a residence and as a place for storing the other requisites. Most human actions, whether it be the preparation, consumption, or storage of food, or the place for keeping one’s clothes and getting dressed, occur in one’s lodging or abode. In respect to offering gifts, the Buddha said:

For the monastic community, the ’residence’ encompasses all buildings, from personal monastic huts (kuṭī) to communal buildings, which comprise individual monasteries, originally referred to by the Buddha as ārāma (’park’, ’grove’). These monasteries developed from forested areas: from woodlands (vana) and royal parks (uyyāna). The first Buddhist monastery, offered by King Bimbisāra to the Buddha, was Veḷuvanaṁ Uyyānaṁ – the ’Bamboo Grove and Royal Park’, and the monastery in which the Buddha spent the most amount of time was Jetavana Royal Park, later called Jetavana Grove.⁵⁸ {360}

From monasteries in smaller woodlands on the outskirts of towns and villages, or those bordering larger forests, the meaning of monastic residences was expanded to incorporate places deep in the forest (arañña), including caves, steep ravines, and mountains. Eventually the concept of ’residence’ (senāsana) for the monastic community came to encompass the entire range of forests, mountains, and inhabited areas, until it meant one’s entire environment – the whole world.

One’s residence, region of habitation, and entire environment is equivalent to those things in one’s surrounding with which one comes into contact, associates, engages, and relates by way of the five senses. Therefore the world around us is the domain for ’physical development’ (kāya-bhāvanā) – for training the body, for training one’s interaction with the outside world by way of the sense faculties.

A favourable relationship to one’s residence, which is maintained continuously by accomplished practitioners, is evinced by the terms used to describe monastic residences above, and it is connected to a healthy relationship generally in spiritual practice to the world at large. This is evident from the first term used to describe a monastery: ārāma, which can be translated as ’park’, and literally means ’place of delight’.

This term ārāma points to a fundamental aspect of a Dhamma practitioner’s relationship to the world, beginning with a person’s residence (in the case of monks and nuns this refers to a monastery), as being a place inspiring delight (for example, it is in a natural surrounding, with plants and animals). This term reveals the desirable mind state that a monastic or a Dhamma practitioner should maintain in relation to a suitable residence, which can then be extended to any place or region where one lives – making it a place of delight.

This is not all. The term ārāma connects people to their fundamental state of existence and way of practice. It connects us to the domain of sense experience – to the mind. Here, one’s ’abode’ or ’abiding’ is one of delight, which we see revealed in various Dhamma principles, for example: solitude as a place of delight (pavivekārāma); seclusion as a place of delight (paṭisallānārāma); the relinquishment of unwholesome qualities as a delightful abiding (pahānārāma); and the cultivation of wholesome qualities as a delightful abiding (bhāvanārāmā).⁵⁹

Ārāma here refers to a favourable feeling or attitude towards a suitable object with which one comes into contact. It is as if Dhamma practitioners have a responsibility to make those things they engage with a source of delight, beginning with one’s lodging or residence (which for monks is already called an ārāma), and then extending this feeling outward into their general environment.

In reference to people’s relationship to their abodes and surrounding environment, besides the term ārāma, another term (used probably more often than ārāma) that is often used in the context of the lives of monks, Dhamma practitioners, and arahants is ramaṇīya, translated as ’delightful’, ’refreshing’, ’pleasant’. This term points to an inspiring surrounding atmosphere, which is extremely favourable for practitioners and conducive to the development of wholesome mind states. For arahants, accessing this delightful atmosphere is easy or happens readily, because their contact with the world occurs without any hidden defilements. Moreover, arahants are able to make their surroundings delightful and refreshing, both for themselves and for those who dwell close to them.

The term ramaṇīya appears frequently in the Tipiṭaka, and it is as if this atmosphere of delight or refreshment is a feature of the Tipiṭaka itself. We see it expressed, for example, already in the story of the Buddha’s life before he was awakened, when as a bodhisatta he went in search of a suitable place to practise meditation and finally found such a location at Uruvelā: {361}

There are records of the Buddha and his disciples, when they stayed at or passed through various places, especially forests and mountains, describing these places as delightful. Sometimes these descriptions are detailed, like in the case of Ven. Ekavihāriya Thera, who described in verse his place of solitude:

When Ven. Mahā Kassapa returned from collecting alms and climbed into the mountains, he uttered a long verse praising the beauty of the forested landscape, including these passages:

To sum up, arahants have completely developed their sense faculties (bhāvitindriya). Besides being able to immediately savour a delightful environment, they are able to perceive or relate to an unpleasant physical surrounding as pleasant. They delight in pleasant places without hindrance, and they transform chaotic, troublesome places into an oasis. Those who come into contact with them share in this delight:

The cultivation of the body (kāya-bhāvanā) begins with initial stages of practice and truly reaches fulfilment when practice is complete – when a person realizes the fruit of wisdom cultivation. When practice is complete, the aspect of physical self-mastery (bhāvita-kāya) is conspicuous and easily apparent to others. Having said this, however, there are other similar results of awakening that can potentially be misleading to ordinary people, who have not developed themselves in body, virtue, mind, and wisdom.⁶⁰ {362}

Moral Self-Mastery (bhāvita-sīla)

Moral conduct (sīla) is a beginning stage of spiritual practice and is perfected at the level of stream-entry (sotāpanna).⁶¹ It is impossible for someone who has realized liberation to act immorally (dussīla) or to deliberately cause harm.⁶² For this reason, there are few scriptural references to the moral conduct of awakened beings. The matter to be discussed here is thus restricted to how arahants conduct their lives and act within society.

Arahants have brought ’kamma’ to cessation⁶³; they have ended kamma.⁶⁴ Their actions are no longer referred to as kamma – the technical term for their actions is kiriyā (’doing’).⁶⁵ Ignorance, craving and clinging do not control their actions; they act with a free mind and with wisdom, clearly understanding cause and effect. They do not cling to ideas of right or wrong, which for other people are connected to a sense of personal identity and gain. They have no hidden personal desires; they have no conceit about ’my virtue’ or ’my good deeds’, for example. They act objectively, reasonably and correctly. They transcend bad kamma, since there is no more greed, hatred or delusion that could lead to harm or evil, and they also transcend good kamma.

One may pose the question that all actions require a motivating force and that the crucial motivation is desire (which is a form of craving – taṇhā). How is it possible for arahants to act when they have abandoned craving? Surely they remain passive and idle. Although they do no bad deeds, they also do no good deeds. An answer to this question is that desire is not the only motivating force for action. Reasoned consideration is also a motivating force.

The flow of human life is dependent upon dynamic forces. Unless other factors interfere, the way we live our lives is directed by knowledge. A lack of knowledge gives craving the opportunity to distort or dictate life’s course. These two forces, of selfish desire and reasoned understanding, are often in conflict with one another. At times selfishness has the upper hand, at other times sound judgement prevails. When a person is released from the controlling power or ’furtive whispering’ of craving, life progresses without restraint, in harmony with wisdom. Wisdom becomes the motivating force.

Craving does not just dictate action; it can also hinder action when knowledge encourages us to act. {363} Craving therefore can be a motivating force for action and for inaction. Inaction in such a case is a kind of action: an act of inaction. Craving can have many functions: it can direct, coerce, or impede. When a wholesome action is not performed, say a student is disinterested in lessons or people do not help one another, we should not merely consider the absence of a motivating force for action. We should also reflect on the motivation for inaction: to take into account the craving, which comes in the form of laziness, aversion, or pleasure directed towards other objects, and has a greater pull on attention. A habitual dependence on craving creates a secondary struggle, between the urge to act and the urge not to act. Whichever selfish motivation is stronger wins. When wisdom is the dominant motivation this struggle is absent.

Through a profound analysis, one recognizes another dynamic. As soon as wisdom understands according to reasoned judgement whether to act or to refrain from acting, an additional force arises in the mind which propels one to action or to restraint. This force can be referred to as a form of desire, or as a motivation, which will be discussed at more length below.⁶⁶

Above, the concepts of craving as a motivation and of wisdom as a motivation were introduced. At first glance these two kinds of motivation seem to be at opposites. Although this subject is covered in another chapter, it is relevant to the current topic and thus deserves a basic explanation.

Simply speaking, human beings have two kinds of motivation. The first kind is driven by craving and is based on our feelings. It consists of desires, wishes, and needs that follow sensation. If something is pleasurable, one wants to acquire it; if something is delicious, one wants to savour it. This kind of desire requires no knowledge of whether the object of desire is correct or incorrect, beneficial or harmful.

The second kind of motivation springs from wisdom. This consists of desires, wishes, and needs that accord with reasoned understanding and a true comprehension of what is correct. For example, one sees a road that is cracking, filthy, obstructed, or slippery. One knows that according to its real purpose and value, such a thoroughfare should be clean, smooth, and safe. When one sees the road in such a damaged state, one wishes to repair and clear it. In contrast with the motivation of craving, this second kind is called the ’motivation of wholesome enthusiasm (chanda)’.

Chanda refers to desires, wishes, and needs that are in line with reality (sabhāva). One wishes for something to be as good, fine, complete, upright or fulfilled as it naturally should be. This is independent of one’s likes and dislikes, or of wanting to either acquire the object or wanting it to disappear, in order to satisfy one’s personal sentiments. {364} Indeed, the desire of wholesome enthusiasm is cultivated alongside the development of wisdom.

When this form of desire, of wanting things to exist in an ideal, natural state, extends outwards in relation to other human beings, it manifests as a wish for others to be well, complete, strong, bright, respected, and happy. Moreover, one wants them to be established in righteousness, established in Dhamma, free from faults and shortcomings.

The Buddha gave great emphasis to human relationships. In this context, according to the circumstances, wholesome enthusiasm vis-à-vis others is expanded into four different kinds: lovingkindness (mettā) – the wish for others to be happy under normal circumstances; compassion (karuṇā) – the wish to help others in times of trouble and distress, to help them escape from suffering; appreciative joy (muditā) – well-wishing, the desire for others to increase in happiness and success; and equanimity (upekkhā) – the wish for others to be established in righteousness, in truth, in a freedom from defect and harm.

Compassion is especially prominent in those people who have reached Nibbāna, who are completely free and happy. Freedom of action based on wisdom, or a motivational force stemming from wisdom, allows for the strength of wholesome desire in the form of compassion to be expressed to the full. Compassion is a key quality of the Buddha and the arahants.

For a person endowed with general humanitarian qualities, compassion arises automatically when encountering someone else who is suffering. This compassion, however, is contingent on an inner freedom and an understanding of things as they are. In that moment one is not dominated by ignorance (avijjā), craving (taṇhā), and grasping (upādāna), for example: one is not acting out of personal gain; one is free of selfish concerns; and one does not find pleasure in others’ misfortune which answers to a secret wish to inflate one’s sense of self.

When the heart is not oppressed, it becomes expansive and is fully sensitive to the suffering of others. There is empathy, understanding, and a wish to free others from suffering. If craving does not interfere (as self-concern, a fear of losing an advantage, or laziness, for instance), life will be guided by wisdom and the wish to help others will transform into compassionate action.

Chanda is the desire of those whose minds are clear and free, who are ready to truly receive other people, responding to them with an understanding of their suffering. And their altruistic intentions, of wanting other people to be released from suffering, are readily extended outwards into active deeds of compassionate assistance.

This all-embracing compassion, of wanting to assist others and free them from suffering, is a potent force in the lives of those who have realized Nibbāna, for whom no lingering sense of a ’self’ – no fixed identity – remains which needs to be protected and gratified. {365}

In sum, true compassion results from wisdom and liberation. The specific term for wisdom in this context is vijjā and the specific term for liberation is vimutti:

1. Vijjā: comprehensive knowledge of reality that allows no room for a belief in ’self’ (attā).

2. Vimutti: liberation; freedom.

3. Karuṇā: compassion; expansiveness of the heart; responsiveness to the suffering of beings; the wish to console others and promote their liberation.

These three qualities are the opposite of:

1. Avijjā: ignorance of the truth, leading to the obstruction of ’self’.

2. Taṇhā: craving; the desire to compensate for the inadequacy of the ’self’ or to reinforce the idea of ’self’.

3. Upādāna: tenacious clinging to things when it is judged that these things will profit the ’self’ or will lead to personal prestige and power.

Arahants have abandoned ignorance, craving and clinging. They possess wisdom as a beacon for action and compassion as a motivating force. If the sole motivation for action were to be craving, then benevolent assistance could never be true or pure. By the same token, as long as assistance to others is motivated by craving, it is not true compassion.

Craving (including ignorance and clinging) is a hazardous motivating force and causes us to be blind to our own and others’ wellbeing. Even if we consider such wellbeing, our vision is distorted; we do not truly understand what is advantageous and disadvantageous. What is beneficial is seen as detrimental and what is detrimental is seen as beneficial. Craving in the form of lust, anger and delusion overwhelms the mind, or as the five hindrances (nīvaraṇa)⁶⁷ it obstructs the functioning of the mind. When there are no such defilements, the mind is calm and bright; it is able to recognize true benefit.⁶⁸

Arahants are able to assist others in a fully compassionate way because they have fulfilled their own state of wellbeing. They have ’attained personal wellbeing’ (anuppatta-sadattha) and they have ’done what had to be done’ (kata-karaṇīya). When personal matters (attattha) are finalized, personal wellbeing is complete (attahita-sampatti); one is inwardly complete and need no longer worry about oneself. A person is then able to fully attend to the wellbeing and concerns of others (parattha), and live life by benefiting others (parahita-paṭipatti).⁶⁹ With such fulfilment arahants have acquired the qualities of being a ’friend to all’ (sabba-mitta), a ’companion to all’ (sabba-sakhi), and ’kind-hearted toward all beings’ (sabba-bhūtānukampaka).⁷⁰ {366}

The word attha (translated above as ’wellbeing’) here does not refer to the usual meaning as an ’advantage’.⁷¹ It refers instead to true benefit, to the most important aspect of a person’s life, in particular to personal attributes that promote prosperity, maturity, resourcefulness, and self-reliance. (This stands in contrast to so-called personal benefits which often cause harm, for instance eating delicious food but to great excess.) The main purpose of this ’inner wealth’ is to develop virtue, specifically wisdom, and to lead to freedom from the controlling power of ignorance, craving and clinging.

The conduct of arahants can be divided into two categories: work and personal activities. In regard to work, arahants tend to be leaders. They fulfil their responsibilities as Buddhist disciples in an optimum way, since they have escaped from the constrictive ’noose’ of defilements. The responsibility of Buddhist disciples is revealed clearly in the Buddha’s repeated instruction, which he gave when he sent disciples out to proclaim the teachings during the first year of his ministry: to act for the welfare and happiness of the many (bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya), for the compassionate assistance of the world (lokānukampāya), and for the wellbeing, support and happiness of gods and human beings (atthāya hitāya sukhāya devamanussānaṁ).⁷² These qualities are significant objectives of the holy life (brahmacariya);⁷³ they are the criteria of behaviour and practice for bhikkhus;⁷⁴ and they are the virtues present in persons who are considered supreme according to the Buddhist teachings.⁷⁵ They are therefore constant considerations for a Buddhist disciple when performing duties and work.

The principal work of arahants is to provide instruction to promote mindfulness, wisdom, and other spiritual qualities, and to act as a role model for a happy and virtuous life. Later generations can take these persons as examples to live up to (diṭṭhānugati: ’following a clear example’). It is fair to say that teaching others is an arahant’s obligation.⁷⁶

A similar standard – of seeking the welfare of all – holds true regarding arahants’ personal conduct. Although arahants have ’finished their business’, and once they have realized Nibbāna they may abandon those practices that were undertaken for realization, they frequently conduct themselves as before. On a personal level this is for abiding at ease in the present (diṭṭhadhamma-sukhavihāra), and in relation to others it is for compassionate assistance to later generations (pacchimā-janatānukampā) by providing a good example. Illustrations of this latter motive include the Buddha’s abiding in forest dwellings,⁷⁷ and Ven. Mahā Kassapa Thera’s observance of the austere practices (dhutaṅga).⁷⁸ {367} Even those community elders who have not realized Nibbāna emphasize acting as an example for later generations.⁷⁹ For an arahant, the ideal human being, such responsibility in this area is exceptional. Note also that some of the rules of discipline (vinaya) were not prescribed as a result of grave offences, but rather due to actions being improper in consideration of future generations.⁸⁰

To sum up, the conduct of arahants, both in regard to duties and to personal activities, aims for the welfare of the many and is done in consideration of later generations. They act for the welfare of others (parattha) and to benefit others (parahita-paṭipatti), consistent with the virtue of compassion, which acts as the motivation. It is difficult, however, to clearly picture the life of the arahants by drawing from stories passed down from the Buddha’s time. These stories are dispersed throughout the suttas, the rules of discipline, and the later texts, and they stress essential teachings on Dhammavinaya rather than the arahants’ personal activities.

The Buddha’s record of foremost disciples (etadagga),⁸¹ which the commentators claim is a bestowal of rank,⁸² includes a long list of arahants’ names, but it merely praises individual abilities or distinctions of particular disciples. The list mentions work only when the performance of this work was outstanding, for example Ven. Dabba-Mallaputta was foremost as the assigner of lodgings (senāsana-paññapaka). There is no mention, for example, of those foremost as distributors of meal invitations (bhattuddesaka), distributors of robes (cīvara-bhājaka), or building managers (nava-kammika), who are similarly officials appointed by the monastic community. The arahants mentioned in this list may have had other regular duties. Moreover, there is a difficulty in that the meanings of some words describing distinction are obscure. {368} Therefore, this list of names (etadagga) is inadequate for portraying the extent of arahants’ activities.⁸³

Nonetheless, we can see in this list of foremost disciples that many of the outstanding qualities are matters related to teaching. One can say that teaching and training others are duties for all arahants, to be done according to their ability. Other activities vary, based on individual skill or disposition. Those arahants proficient in teaching, as preceptors and teachers (ācariya), were honoured and had many disciples. Besides their general teaching duties, they were also responsible for training these disciples; the suttas thus tell of many great monks who, on their travels, were accompanied by large numbers of bhikkhus.⁸⁴

Teaching disciples includes educating novices (sāmaṇera). Ven. Sāriputta, for example, was adept at teaching children and probably had many novices under his care. When Ven. Rāhula was preparing to be ordained as a novice, the Buddha entrusted him to Sāriputta as his preceptor.⁸⁵ There are many famous young accomplished novices who were Sāriputta’s pupils.⁸⁶ On one occasion Sāriputta, while walking for alms, met an impoverished orphan, who was wandering in search of food scraps, and out of compassion encouraged him to ordain as a novice and study the Dhammavinaya.⁸⁷ The Buddha reminded the monks to look after the children who came to be ordained.⁸⁸ {369}

With the influx of large numbers of people seeking training came the duty of supervision. The Buddha advocated a sense of responsibility around this supervision of the community.⁸⁹ The objective of community administration is to facilitate training, and to provide education to as many disciples or students as possible in an atmosphere of mutual support.

Apart from the responsibilities of teaching, training, and supervising, the Pali Canon shows that arahants honoured community activities. Buddhists hold the community (saṅgha) as the authority. The Buddha continually emphasized communal harmony, both in his Dhamma teachings (e.g. the ’conditions of prosperity’ – aparihāniya-dhamma,⁹⁰ and the emphasis of holding the Dhamma as one’s teacher⁹¹), and in the rules of discipline, especially those concerning formal acts of the monastic community (saṅgha-kamma).⁹²

Many stories demonstrate concern for communal activities and respect for the community. For example, when the Buddha encouraged the monks to perform the observance day (uposatha) each fortnight, by reciting the Pāṭimokkha and confirming their purity, Ven. Mahākappina wondered whether he should participate in the ceremony, since he was an arahant and completely pure. The Buddha knew what he was thinking and admonished him:

Ven. Dabba-Mallaputta accomplished the fruit of arahantship while still young. He thought:

Later, he thought:

He then went to inform the Buddha of his willingness. The Buddha consented and had the bhikkhus meet to consider and accept his appointment as the assigner of lodgings and distributor of food.⁹³

When events take place that may disturb the monastic order, arahants earnestly exert themselves to resolve the issue, even though they usually prefer to abide in quiet and solitude. {370} Ven. Mahā Kassapa, for example, began the proceedings of the First Recitation,⁹⁴ and Venerables Yasa Kākaṇḍaputta, Sambhūta Sāṇavāsī and Revata initiated the Second Recitation.⁹⁵

In the First Recitation, after the formal act of the sangha (saṅgha-kamma) was complete and the meeting was officially ended, some elders present at the meeting formally admonished Ven. Ānanda concerning offences or mistakes during his attendance on the Buddha. Although Ānanda had plenty of evidence showing that he did not fail in his duty, after clearly explaining his conduct he nonetheless acknowledged the criticism by these elders.⁹⁶

When the bhikkhu sangha met to settle legal matters during the Second Recitation, two arahants failed to come to the meeting on time. The gathered elders imposed a penalty, presenting them with tasks to be performed.⁹⁷ At the time of King Milinda, a king of Greek ancestry who ruled in Northwest India and was erudite in religious doctrines and philosophy, the king challenged various religious sects to debate, causing a disturbance in Buddhist circles. The elder arahants met to consider a response to the situation. One arahant, named Rohaṇa, had entered the ’attainment of cessation’ (nirodha-samāpatti) in the Himalayas and being unaware of the meeting did not attend. The gathering sent a messenger to invite him and also required expiation, presenting him with the responsibility of ordaining the boy Nāgasena.⁹⁸

Later texts contain similar stories. For example, when the bhikkhu sangha was helping King Asoka to preserve the teachings, an arahant named Upagutta had gone into seclusion enjoying the happiness of jhāna, unaware of the community’s activities. The sangha assembly sent a bhikkhu to fetch him and then imposed a penalty for seeking his own individual comfort and not staying in connection with the community. They gave him the duty of overseeing the celebration of Asoka’s stupa, which he performed out of respect for the community.⁹⁹ Whatever the authenticity of these stories, especially the later ones, they demonstrate clearly the Buddhist tradition of arahants being role models in honouring the community and being responsible for communal activities. The cause or motivation for these actions is the same as that mentioned earlier:

Mental Self-Mastery (bhāvita-citta)

The principal characteristic of an enlightened person’s mind is freedom, which is the result of wisdom. When a person sees things according to the truth, fully comprehending conditioned phenomena, the mind is released from the control of the defilements. The scriptures usually describe the perfection of freedom as follows:

One aspect of freedom from defilement is the end of enslavement to alluring and provocative sense objects. The Buddha said that sense objects are the basis for greed, hatred and delusion.¹⁰⁰ Also, the absence of an impulse to act unjustly or harmfully guarantees moral rectitude.¹⁰¹ Another aspect of freedom is the absence of fear, trepidation and terror.¹⁰²

An arahant has mastery over sense objects and is thus described as ’one who has trained the sense bases’ (i.e. he or she has completed the development of the sense faculties – indriya-bhāvanā). This means that when cognizing a sense object, for example a sight or a sound, and a natural recognition of agreeableness, disagreeableness or neutrality arises, arahants can control perception (saññā) as they wish. For example, they can perceive the repulsive as unrepulsive, or perceive the unrepulsive as repulsive, as well as abandon both the repulsive and the unrepulsive, dwelling equanimous and mindful.¹⁰³

Possessing mindfulness and self-mastery, an arahant is called ’one who has been trained’,¹⁰⁴ and a ’self-conqueror, the greatest of those victorious in battle’.¹⁰⁵ An arahant’s mind is stable, and does not tremble as a consequence of agreeable or disagreeable sense objects. It is like a mountain, which is not shaken by the wind,¹⁰⁶ or like the earth, which bears all things and is neither angered nor offended when filthy items are cast upon it.¹⁰⁷

An additional aspect of freedom is non-clinging, which the Buddha often compared to a lotus leaf, which is not adhered to by water, or a lotus blossom, which grows in the mud but is pure, clean and beautiful.¹⁰⁸ A person begins by not clinging to sensuality, to merit, and to good and evil, as clinging to these things is the cause for brooding over the past and yearning for the future: {372}

In the Bhaddekaratta Sutta there is a similar passage:

Not brooding over the past and not yearning for the future are classified here as aspects of the citta, not of wisdom. They correspond to the domain of ’emotion’. There are terms describing the attributes of an arahant in respect to the past and future that are matters of wisdom, for example: reminiscence of past lives (pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa), knowledge of the decease and rebirth of beings (cutūpapāta-ñāṇa), knowledge of the past (atītaṁsa-ñāṇa), and knowledge of the future (anāgataṁsa-ñāṇa).¹⁰⁹ Arahants draw upon knowledge of the past and use wisdom to consider future activities. Indeed, because an arahant’s heart is free from the past and future, knowledge concerning the past and future can be used by wisdom in the most beneficial way. In addition, an arahant’s actions are generally performed to assist future generations, as was explained earlier.

Some of the aspects of an arahant’s mind will be at odds with the views of ordinary people, since superficially these aspects are considered unpleasant or blameworthy. One such aspect that the Buddha mentioned often is nirāsa (or nirāsā), which can be translated as ’hopeless’, ’wishless’, or ’without expectation’.¹¹⁰ This hopelessness, or absence of wishing, of an enlightened person has a more profound meaning, however, than that which most people usually consider. Ordinary human beings normally live with hope. This hope is based on desire, wanting various things or wanting to be a particular way, thus hoping to obtain or to become. This hope sustains life; when someone is disappointed or feels hopeless due to not getting what is wished for, or due to the unattainability of an object, then that person is considered to have misfortune. When someone is gratified by obtaining what is wanted or something desirable appears to be within reach, that person is considered to be fortunate.

A hopeful person, however, still has a concealed expectation or anticipation that is constantly present, even if he is not conscious of it, that is, the possibility of being disappointed or falling into despair. This aspect of hope is often referred to as ’apprehension’, which is a form of fear – a form of suffering. Hope thus comes paired with apprehension; if hope remains, fear remains. {373}

An arahant resembles the person who has lost hope, but there is an important distinction. An arahant’s ’hopelessness’ or absence of expectation is not a consequence of there being no way to obtain what is desired; instead, it results from an inner completeness and satiety. There is nothing lacking which must be wished for; there is no deficiency giving rise to desire and hope. In short, an arahant’s freedom from hope stems from an absence of craving. When one does not yearn for things, and does not long to be some particular way, then there is nothing to be hoped for. When there is nothing to be hoped for then one lives without hope; one has given up or ended hope, along with the fear that springs from hope.

This implies that people can exist without depending on or entrusting their life and happiness to hope. Arahants have gone beyond both gratification and hopelessness as these terms are ordinarily defined. Being fulfilled and content, they surpass those who are gratified or hopeful. This is a level that is superior to or free from hope, because there is complete happiness in each present moment. There is no opportunity for further disappointment or despair (compare this with assaddha – ’faithlessness’ – as a wisdom quality).

Many other heart qualities exist, which are related to those mentioned above, for example:¹¹¹

• Akiñcana: no anxiety; nothing lingering in the mind.

• Asoka: happy; sorrowless.

• Khema: secure; safe.

• Nicchāta: ’hungerless’.

• Santa: no confusion, restlessness, worry, irritation, depression, boredom, or fear; peaceful.

• Santuṭṭha: satisfied; contented.

• Sītibhūta; nibbuta: tranquil; cooled.

• Viraja: free from mental impurity; immaculate.

• Visaṭṭho gacchati …: ’Totally at ease while walking, standing, sitting and lying down.’

The Buddha emphasized happiness (sukha). There are terms describing the state of Nibbāna as happiness, terms describing those who have realized Nibbāna as happy, and statements by such realized ones themselves describing their own happiness. For example:

Even for those who are training in the Dhamma it is necessary to view Nibbāna as happiness for the practice to be correct, as stated in the Buddha’s words:

Although Nibbāna is happiness, and those who have realized Nibbāna are happy, such realized ones do not cling to happiness of any kind, and do not become attached to or indulge in Nibbāna.¹¹³ When cognizing external sense objects, for example by way of the eye or ear, an arahant still experiences feelings – pleasant, unpleasant and neutral – connected with those objects, just like an ordinary person. An exception exists, however, in that an arahant experiences feelings without being constricted by defilement. An arahant neither rejoices over nor is troubled by feelings; nor are those feelings a cause for craving. Feeling exists at only one level, which is called ’experiencing feeling by way of the body but not the mind’. Feeling does not give rise to internal affliction or worry; such feeling is said to be ’cooled’. An arahant experiences feelings without latent tendencies (anusaya), unlike unenlightened beings, who have the latent tendency of lust (rāgānusaya) when experiencing pleasure, the latent tendency of hostility (paṭighānusaya) when experiencing pain, and the latent tendency of ignorance (avijjānusaya) when experiencing neutral feelings, perpetually increasing the habit and strength of these defilements.¹¹⁴

Pleasure and pain from external sources are unable to affect an arahant’s internal happiness. An arahant’s happiness is thus independent, not relying on external phenomena. It is an immaterial happiness (nirāmisa-sukha), or even surpasses immaterial happiness (ordinary nirāmisa-sukha is the happiness of jhāna.)¹¹⁵ As an arahant’s happiness is independent of external conditions, the natural fluctuation of things is not a cause for suffering. Even if the six sense objects change and pass away, an arahant still abides in happiness;¹¹⁶ even if the five aggregates change and become otherwise, there is no sorrow or suffering.¹¹⁷ A thorough knowledge of impermanence brings about tranquillity and contentment. The Buddha described this happiness as one attribute of being a refuge onto oneself, or of having the Dhamma as a refuge.¹¹⁸ {375}

Another important descriptive term for an arahant’s mind, which covers many of the characteristics already mentioned, is ārogya, translated as ’without sickness’ or ’freedom from illness’. It can also be rendered as ’health’ or ’healthy’. Ārogya is an epithet for Nibbāna.¹¹⁹ Being without illness or being healthy refers here to the absence of mental illness or to a healthy mind, as mentioned in the Buddha’s teachings to an aged layman:

The Buddha said that there are two kinds of illness: physical and mental:

These words of the Buddha illustrate that an arahant is a person with perfect mental health.

The description of an arahant as being free of illness or in good health reveals the value of realizing Nibbāna. One may wonder: if arahants do not seek the pleasures cherished by ordinary people, how can they be happy, and what worth does Nibbāna have?

An absence of illness is a condition of happiness that is complete in itself. It is far better than the happiness resulting from a temporary alleviation of pain, not to mention the discomfort of sickness and chronic ailments.

Obtaining medicine or treatment to allay symptoms of illness offers momentary happiness. The more severe the symptoms, the greater the happiness when the symptoms subside. From one perspective, a healthy person is denied this kind of pleasure. But no one in their right mind would desire a sick person’s happiness, of waiting to savour the end of pain and discomfort.

In the case of an illness, happiness is experienced through the repeated or occasional alleviation of discomfort and agitation. Such occasional happiness can be compared to the pleasure sought by ordinary people. The happiness of being without illness, which is normally not recognized as happiness, is simply internal ease and relief. This can be compared to the state of an arahant or to the happiness of Nibbāna.

The Buddha applied the analogy of a leper with erupting sores. Due to irritation and itching, the leper scratches the lesions and heats his flesh over coals. The more he scratches and sears his body, the more itchy and inflamed do the sores become. The happiness and pleasant sensation he receives relies upon having a wound that can be scratched. {376} The leper will remain in this state until a skilled doctor prepares a medicine that cures him of the leprosy. Cured of leprosy, he becomes a person in good health (aroga), happy (sukhī), free (serī), with self-mastery (sayaṁvasī), and able to go where he pleases (yena-kāmaṅgama). Both the scratching of the sores and the heating by the fire, which used to provide him with pleasure and relief, are no longer considered by him as a form of happiness. He now regards such behaviour as painful and miserable.

This analogy can be applied to ordinary beings, who seek pleasure from the five ’strands’ of sensuality. Although they experience pleasure through obtaining things and gratifying desire, they are inflamed by desire, experiencing increasing turmoil and agitation. When life is conducted in this manner, pleasure and delight only revolve around the arousal of craving, leading to increased passion. Gratification is sought to temporarily quell the agitation. With the realization of Nibbāna, no ’fuel’ remains to provoke craving, and happiness is experienced without alleviating an inflammation.¹²⁰

An unenlightened person is compared to someone who derives pleasure from scratching an itch. The greater the itch the more one scratches, and the more one scratches the greater the itch. And the greater the itch the greater the pleasure from scratching. An ordinary person thus likes to increase the degree of pleasure by seeking ways to increase the stimulation and excitement, and so increase the itch; as a result more pleasure is experienced from increased scratching. A realized being is like someone who is cured from an itch-inducing illness, whose normal physical state is healthy; happiness exists due to the absence of an itch and of a need to scratch. An ordinary person, however, may criticize such a person as lacking the pleasure derived from scratching an itch.

Similarly, an unenlightened person’s search for happiness is like building up and fanning a fire, and then receiving amusement and coolness by extinguishing it. The brighter and hotter the fire, the more effort needed for extinguishing, causing more spectacular crackling and flashing. Ordinary people conduct their lives in this way, despite greater risks of danger for themselves and others. Those who are liberated resemble persons who have extinguished the fire. They live in ease, coolness, and safety, with no need to be burnt, and with no need to be on guard against dangers from heat. They are not engaged in the thrill or anxiety of extinguishing a fire that they previously ignited.

Realization brings about changes in personality, as well as in attitudes towards the world. Such mental transformation can be compared to the development of a child into an adult. Adults no longer hold dear those toys and games that were cherished during childhood. An adult may even be amused seeing a child fascinated with and possessive of such toys. Likewise, a person who has realized Nibbāna has reached a stage of development that surpasses ordinary beings. Attitudes towards life, towards things admired by ordinary people, and towards the way people conduct their lives, have changed.¹²¹ {377}

Wisdom Self-Mastery (bhāvita-paññā)

The basis for an arahant’s wisdom is the ability to see things as they truly are. This clear seeing starts at cognition of sense objects by way of the six senses, with a mind that is equanimous and mindful, not swayed by pleasure or aversion. Such a person is able to observe a sense impression from beginning to end without being distracted or disturbed by it. Ordinary people, on the other hand, tend to get stuck at the point where sense impressions produce a feeling of pleasure and aversion. As a result, they tend to elaborate on and create distorted ideas about the things they encounter. They have a false understanding: they see things clouded by defilement rather than as they truly are. Take for example a person who agrees with a statement when he has been flattered but disagrees without the flattery. Or a person may agree because he likes the speaker yet disagree when the identical subject is mentioned by someone he dislikes.¹²²

Arahants are not deceived by the external appearances of things; they acknowledge all facets of the truth and do not attach to just one perspective. The wisdom of an arahant helps to dispel the claim that Buddhism is a pessimistic doctrine. For example, those who have realized the truth (buddhadhamma) know that the five aggregates are neither exclusively painful nor exclusively pleasant.¹²³ A person who is to be enlightened must understand the merits (assāda) and disadvantages (ādīnava) of sense desire, as well as the deliverance (nissaraṇa) from it. The merits are seen as merits, the disadvantages as disadvantages, and the deliverance as deliverance. The abandonment of sense desire and the end of both hankering for the world and grasping the five aggregates is due to seeing the way of deliverance. A person will then be independent of such merits and disadvantages, abiding in happiness – a happiness that is subtler and greater than happiness conditioned by pleasant and unpleasant experiences.¹²⁴

Another level of wisdom is the comprehension of the universal characteristics (impermanence – anicca, dukkha, and ’nonself’ – anattā), and of language, in particular of ’conventions’ (sammati) and ’designations’ (paññatti). {378} The comprehension of language includes understanding the nature of ’worldly speech’ (lokiya-vohāra) and knowing how to use language to convey meaning without clinging to linguistic conventions:

With the arising of wisdom, seeing how all conditioned things originate from interdependent causes, a person understands the world according to truth. This is the arising of a correct worldview. Metaphysical beliefs and theories, as well as doubts (avyākata-pañhā)¹²⁵ vanish automatically:

Another feature of an arahant’s wisdom is that he or she does not rely on faith or belief, a quality which in Pali is called assaddha (’faithless’). {379} This quality is the opposite of disbelief or faithlessness in the ordinary sense, which means not believing due to lack of confidence in others or due to obstinacy. Here it means one does not need to believe because one knows and sees with clarity. One knows for oneself and is independent of the knowledge of others. Faith implies reliance on someone else’s knowledge when we do not yet clearly know for ourselves. Once we have seen something as it truly is, there is no need to depend on others for knowledge. This is a knowledge that is greater than faith or belief:

Likewise, Ven. Sāriputta said to the Buddha:

At the time of the Buddha, people were very interested in the concept of a ’great man’ (mahāpurisa), and therefore there are many passages in the Tipiṭaka in reference to this term. There are references to the ’characteristics of a great man’ (mahāpurisa-lakkhaṇa), for example in the case of the brahmins’ predictions about Prince Siddhattha, which were based on their ancient texts. But from the perspective of the teachings, more interesting passages pertain to the question posed to the Buddha after his awakening of who is worthy of the title ’great man’. This frequent question shows that this concept was still important and a matter of debate.

On one occasion Ven. Sāriputta went to see the Buddha and asked him this question:

This reply indicates that the Buddha considered an arahant – one who has completed the four aspects of development – to be a great man. His reply is very brief and succinct, focusing on the final criteria: a completion of the four kinds of development, culminating in liberating wisdom. No matter how skilled or proficient a person may be, if he is still not fully liberated from mental defilement, he is not yet a great man.

To be worthy of this title, one must be free from suffering. For example, one’s thought processes are truly free from any restriction or impurity, which does not mean that one obtains everything that one wishes for or faces no obstruction or coercion from others. On the highest level, one’s wisdom is free from any domination or manipulation from a fabricated sense of ’self’. {380} One’s thoughts do not simply follow one’s desires, propelled by craving (taṇhā), conceit (māna), and fixed views (diṭṭhi).

In any case, the reason for the Buddha’s brevity here is most likely because he was speaking to Ven. Sāriputta, the foremost disciple proficient in wisdom. The Buddha thus mentioned only the decisive criteria, along with tying in the concept of liberation with the teaching on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, presenting the supreme perspective on this subject.

A teaching by the Buddha which elaborates on this concept of a great man stems from a conversation he had with Vassakāra, the chief minister of Magadha. On one occasion while the Buddha was staying in the Bamboo Grove at Rājagaha, he was approached by Vassakāra, who said that according to his own doctrine a person considered to be a great man with superior wisdom is endowed with four attributes: (1) he is highly learned, well-informed of various fields of learning, and understands the meaning of various statements, able to distinguish one from another; (2) he has a good memory; he remembers and recollects what was done and said long ago; (3) he is skilful and diligent in attending to the diverse chores of a householder; and (4) he possesses sound judgement, knowing how to carry out and arrange his affairs.

After presenting this explanation Vassakāra asked the Buddha whether he approves or rejects this statement. The Buddha replied, saying that he neither approves nor rejects the statement, but that he himself describes a great man with superior wisdom as possessing four other qualities:

Although there are many teachings by the Buddha on this concept of a great man, they usually appear in verse form and are a reply to people’s specific questions, so most are either brief or focused on one particular aspect. The teaching presented to the chief minister above is in prose, and it contains clearly defined principles, which are relevant to everyone. The four aspects of self-mastery (bhāvita) are incorporated in the four attributes of a great man. Expressed in a different way, these four attributes reveal another aspect of the four kinds of development, highlighting the superior and exceptional capabilities of an arahant which are difficult for an ordinary person to attain.

The first attribute reveals how arahants – those who have fulfilled the holy life (brahmacariya) – are no longer burdened with any personal concerns, including any form of spiritual training. From the time of their full awakening, they devote themselves entirely to the welfare and happiness of the multitudes, which becomes the essence of their lives. {381} This corresponds to the goal of the holy life – to Buddhism in its entirety – which is encapsulated in the Buddha’s frequent exhortation: to act ’for the benefit of the manyfolk, for the happiness of the manyfolk, out of compassion for people in the world.’

This compassionate, altruistic action also points to the connection between individual happiness and promoting the happiness of others.

In whichever way one describes the attributes of arahants, including the preceding description of the fourfold self-mastery, they always rest firmly on three essential qualities: wisdom (specifically called vijjā); liberation (vimutti); and compassion (karuṇā), which is the force radiating knowledge and wisdom outwards, resulting in others obtaining knowledge and arriving at deliverance.

If we identify an unawakened being as someone bound, wisdom is the knife that cuts the bonds, liberation is the release from the bonds into freedom, and compassion is, once a person is no longer agitated and anxious about his or her own concerns, the looking to others who are still bound and extricating them.

Technically, vijjā is the path (magga), whereas vimutti is generally considered fruit or result (phala). The authors of later texts, however, have divided vimutti into more detail as two parts, as both path and fruit. They say that the act or moment of release is the path; the state of having been released and abiding in freedom is the fruit.¹²⁷ The realization of Nibbāna is completed at wisdom and liberation; compassion is the subsequent acting for others. In other words, personal concerns (attattha) are ended at wisdom and liberation; matters to be done for others (parattha) are deeds then taken up by compassion.

Note that of these three qualities – wisdom, liberation and compassion – liberation is a result; it is a finished condition and facilitates further action but is not the agent itself. Wisdom and compassion are agents. Wisdom is the factor bringing about the realization of Nibbāna, which is the accomplishment of personal concerns. Compassion is the factor that helps to settle the affairs of others. For this reason wisdom and compassion are professed to be primary attributes of the Buddha. Wisdom is the essential element for personal welfare (attattha) or for the completion of personal benefit (attahita-sampatti), while compassion is the essential element for others’ wellbeing (parattha) or for the practice of benefiting others (parahita-paṭipatti).

In short, the Buddha’s attributes are of two kinds: the completion of personal benefit, with wisdom as agent, and the practice of benefiting others, with compassion as agent.¹²⁸ Both the completion of personal benefit and the practice of benefiting others are meaningful and genuine because they are confirmed by liberation. {382} Liberation is proof of the arrival at Nibbāna; it is an essential characteristic of Nibbāna and is synonymous with Nibbāna.

Additional Attributes of Arahants

Outward Demeanour

{396} In the Dhammacetiya Sutta, King Pasenadi of Kosala told the Buddha the reasons for his faith in the Triple Gem. The Buddha endorsed these principles as dhamma-cetiya (’monuments’ in honour of the Dhamma) and said they are fundamental to the holy life. He encouraged the members of the monastic sangha to remember them. One section of this sutta describes the bhikkhu disciples of the Buddha as follows:

Happiness and Liberation

Masters of the Heart, Rulers of Thought

Loving All Creatures; Intimate with Death and Separation

At one time Ven. Upasena Thera was sitting in a cave in the Sītavana forest. Two venomous snakes were chasing each other when one of them fell on Upasena and bit him. The poison spread quickly. He knew that he was about to die but his behaviour did not change. He asked his fellow monks to place him on a bed and carry him so that he could enter parinibbāna outside.¹³⁴

On another occasion Ven. Ānanda asked Ven. Sāriputta if he would grieve if the Buddha were to pass away. Sāriputta replied:

The elder Ven. Adhimutta was captured by bandits but experienced no fear. The bandit leader was perplexed:

When encountering these canonical records of the inner life of arahants, ordinary people may brand arahants as eccentric, wrongly imagining that they have no concern for others and heartlessly let things take their own course. Therefore, it is important to remind people of arahants’ outward behaviour, that they conduct their lives responsibly and justly. What is the nature of a person’s life when there are no unresolved experiences congesting the mind or defilements ruling the heart? Eccentric or strange behaviour can be found in some persons who have attained certain levels of concentrative release (cetovimutti). Arahants, however, have attained release through wisdom (paññā-vimutti); they do not hold even to the thought: ’I am one who is free from grasping.’ No impurities are there to form an identity as someone who is unattached. No new attachments are made (e.g. to spiritual attainments) which could bring about a dismissive attitude towards the thing they left behind. Nor are there any defilements that cause disgust or disinterest. Arahants thus act reasonably, appropriately and wisely, out of wholesome service to the world. {400}

An absence of fear (even of being startled) is a key mental attribute of an arahant.¹³⁷ As mentioned earlier in the section on qualities of the heart (citta), arahants are free of any greed, hatred or delusion, which are the causes for fear and anxiety. Fear stems from defilements buried deeply in the subconscious. It is an immediate reaction when confronted by frightening objects, a process that happens so quickly a person is not fully aware of it. Because the reaction occurs before mindfulness is established, fear is very difficult to conceal. It is thus a good indication that subtle mental impurities still lie dormant. When fear is present, it is not easy to deceive others or to delude oneself.

In special circumstances, when outward behaviour suggests the realization of arahantship, or someone mistakenly believes to have reached such realization, Dhamma practitioners have used fear as a test. An example from the scriptures is the story of an elder monk proficient at the eight ’attainments’ (samāpatti). As the mental defilements were suppressed by the power of these attainments, for sixty years he believed himself to be an arahant. One day when he saw a trumpeting, ferocious elephant he was startled, and thus knew that he was still unawakened.¹³⁸

Seven Noble Beings

This division of noble beings focuses on the spiritual faculties (indriya) and is also connected to the eight liberations (vimokkha).

The indriya (literally: ’ruling principles’) act as sources of empowerment in spiritual practice. They control or combat unfavourable mental qualities like lack of confidence, laziness, negligence, distraction, and ignorance. There are five such faculties: faith (saddhā), energy (viriya), mindfulness (sati), concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā). Dhamma practitioners possess varying degrees of these faculties. Three of these faculties have an effect on the kind of realization of noble beings (ariya-puggala): faith (saddhindriya), concentration (samādhindriya) and wisdom (paññindriya).

Vimokkha is the liberation from unfavourable mental qualities, resulting from the delight of being absorbed in an object of attention. This liberation, however, is dependent on the power of concentration in the state of jhāna, and exists only as long as one abides in jhāna.¹³⁹ It is not the complete liberation from defilements and suffering which is synonymous with Nibbāna.¹⁴⁰ {412}

There are eight kinds of vimokkha:¹⁴¹

1. ’Dwelling in form, one perceives form.’ This refers to the four fine-material jhānas of someone who practises kasiṇa¹⁴² meditation and uses an attribute of the body, e.g. the colour of hair, as the meditation object.

2. ’Not perceiving internal form, one perceives external form.’ This refers to the four fine-material jhānas of someone who uses an external object for kasiṇa meditation.

3. ’Absorbed in beauty.’ This refers to the jhāna of someone practising colour kasiṇa meditation. The Paṭisambhidāmagga also includes the jhāna of a person cultivating the four divine abidings (brahmavihāra or appamaññā): loving kindness (mettā), compassion (karuṇā), appreciative joy (muditā), and equanimity (upekkhā). Meditation on the four divine abidings leads a person to see all beings as beautiful, with no feelings of disgust.

4. Abiding in the sphere of unbounded space (ākāsānañcāyatana). With the end of perception of repulsion (paṭigha-saññā) and perception of diversity (nānatta-saññā), one transcends the perception of form (rūpa-saññā). One meditates on the boundlessness of space.

5. Transcending the sphere of unbounded space, one attains the sphere of unbounded consciousness (viññāṇañcāyatana). One meditates on the boundlessness of consciousness.

6. Transcending the sphere of unbounded consciousness, one attains the sphere of nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana).

7. Transcending the sphere of nothingness, one attains the sphere of neither-perception-nor-nonperception (nevasaññānāsaññāyatana).

8. Transcending the sphere of neither-perception-nor-nonperception, one attains the cessation of perception and feeling (saññāvedayita-nirodha), also known as the ’attainment of cessation’ (nirodha-samāpatti).

These eight liberations comprise all nine ’gradual stages of meditative attainment’ (anupubbavihāra-samāpatti) as illustrated on Figure Gradual Stages of Meditative Attainment.

The spiritual faculties (indriya) are linked to the liberations in the following way: when a person begins spiritual practice, he or she will possess a dominant faculty of either faith or wisdom. {413} If that person develops concentration to a level higher than the third liberation (i.e. attains formless jhāna), the faculty of concentration (samādhindriya) will become the dominant faculty. Those practitioners whose dominant faculty remains faith or wisdom may attain the four fine-material jhānas but they will not attain the formless jhānas. Conventionally speaking, they do not attain ’vimokkha’. Concentration as a dominant faculty, however, in the end must give way to and act as a basis for wisdom. Up to that point, concentration will facilitate the attainment of the higher liberations (vimokkha).

At this point we can examine how the seven noble beings (dakkhiṇeyya-puggala) are connected to the faculties and liberations. Ordinarily, the seven noble beings are presented from the highest to the lowest, but to conform with the presentation of the eight noble beings presented earlier, they are listed here from the lowest to the highest:¹⁴³

Learners (sekha; sa-upādisesa-puggala)

1. Saddhānusārī: ’faith-devotee’; a person striving for stream-entry and cultivating the noble path with faith as dominant faculty. If this person attains stream-entry, he becomes ’one liberated by faith’ (saddhā-vimutta).

2. Dhammānusārī: ’truth-devotee’; a person striving for stream-entry and cultivating the noble path with wisdom as dominant faculty. If this person attains stream-entry, he becomes ’one attained to right view’ (diṭṭhippatta).

3. Saddhā-vimutta: ’one liberated by faith’; a person who truly understands the noble truths, has righteous conduct, and has destroyed some of the taints (āsava) through wisdom, and has faith as the dominant faculty. This refers to all those who have attained stream-entry up to those who strive for arahantship with faith as dominant faculty. If they attain arahantship, they become ’one liberated by wisdom’ (paññā-vimutta).

4. Diṭṭhippatta: ’one attained to right view’; a person who truly understands the noble truths, has righteous conduct, and has destroyed some of the taints (āsava) through wisdom. This refers to all those who have attained stream-entry up to those who strive for arahantship with wisdom as dominant faculty. If they attain arahantship, they become a paññā-vimutta.

5. Kāya-sakkhī: ’body witness’; a person who abides in and has ’contacted with the body’ the eight liberations, and has destroyed some of the taints (āsava) through wisdom. This refers to all those who have attained stream-entry up to those who strive for arahantship with concentration as dominant faculty. If they attain arahantship, they become ’one liberated in both ways’ (ubhatobhāga-vimutta).

Adepts (asekha; anupādisesa-puggala)

Figure Noble Beings, Their Faculties and Liberations shows the connection between the 8 dakkhiṇeyya-puggala, the 7 dakkhiṇeyya-puggala, the five spiritual faculties, and the eight liberations.¹⁴⁴

A sequential diagram is shown at Figure Noble Beings, Sequential Progression. {415}

There are some noteworthy points here in relation to dakkhiṇeyya-puggala and ariya-puggala as outlined in the two diagrams above:

• Note that despite the strength of any other faculties within a person, at the moment of full awakening wisdom predominates.¹⁴⁵

• A simple definition for kāya-sakkhī is ’one who first attains jhāna and later attains Nibbāna’.¹⁴⁶ Note also that only a ’body witness’ who is a non-returner is able to attain the eighth liberation (vimokkha).

• The commentaries and sub-commentaries state that ubhatobhāga-vimutta are liberated in two ways: liberated from the corporeal body (rūpa-kāya) by the formless attainments, and from the mind-body (nāma-kāya) by the noble path. They are liberated on two occasions: when suppressing (vikkhambhana) the defilements by the power of concentration in jhāna, and when completely uprooting (samuccheda) the defilements.¹⁴⁷ If ubhatobhāga-vimutta attain the threefold knowledge (vijjā), they are called tevijja. If they attain the six abhiññā (’supreme knowledge’), they are called chaḷabhiñña. If they attain the four penetrating insights (paṭisambhidā), they are called paṭisambhidappatta.

• Paññā-vimutta practise primarily vipassanā meditation; they practise samatha meditation only to have an adequate foundation for insight. They therefore do not experience the exceptional fruits of samatha beyond the first four jhānas; they do not attain the formless jhānas, the ’attainment of cessation’ (nirodha-samāpatti), the two lokiya-vijjā (’mundane knowledge’ – recollection of past lives and knowledge of the rebirth of beings), nor do they attain the five mundane abhiññā (’supreme knowledge’ – psychic powers, the ’divine ear’, telepathy, recollection of past lives, and the ’divine eye’.)¹⁴⁸ In principle, however, they can be paṭisambhidappatta (those who achieve the four penetrating insights).¹⁴⁹

A summary of the subjects described so far can be outlined as follows.

An outline from the Pali Canon is illustrated on Figure Noble Beings, An Outline of Connections (here, the commentaries and sub-commentaries are referred to simply to link the material). {416}

Figure Noble Beings, An Extended Outline shows an outline From the Pali Canon, Commentaries and Sub-commentaries.¹⁵⁰

{417} To avoid confusion it is important here to distinguish between two ways of teaching: (a) explaining indirectly or limiting one’s examination to particular aspects (pariyāya); and (b) explaining directly, absolutely and comprehensively (nippariyāya). Of particular relevance is the discussion on the two types of arahants: paññā-vimutta and ubhatobhāga-vimutta. Ubhatobhāga-vimutta are liberated in both ways: they have attained arahantship and have also attained the formless jhānas. Paññā-vimutta have attained arahantship, but if they attain jhāna it is not higher than the fourth jhāna.

Although there are only these two types of arahants, people may get confused when encountering, for example, the description of an arahant as ’one liberated in mind’ (cetovimutta). For clarification, cetovimutta is another name for ubhatobhāga-vimutta; the term cetovimutta simply emphasizes the preferred mode of practice (in this case samatha) before reaching arahantship. It does not imply that liberation was attained solely by concentration.

In some places, arahants who have practised samatha and vipassanā in tandem are rather randomly assigned the names cetovimutta or paññā-vimutta depending on which faculty was stronger. For example, the commentaries call Ven. Sāriputta a paññā-vimutta and Ven. Mahā Moggallāna a cetovimutta.¹⁵¹ On some occasions these two terms are used together to describe a single arahant who has achieved both of these ways to liberation.¹⁵² Another example of how terms are used in different ways to describe arahants is in the Paṭisambhidāmagga, which uses the fixed terms saddhā-vimutta, diṭṭhippatta and kāya-sakkhī for practitioners all the way till the moment of full awakening.¹⁵³ Failing to understand this indirect way of explaining can lead to confusion; all of a sudden there are multiple types of arahants.

A similar confusion can arise when explaining other terms related to Buddha-Dhamma. An example is the definition of right mindfulness (sammā-sati) as equivalent to the Four Foundations of Mindfulness (satipaṭṭhāna).¹⁵⁴ The Four Foundations of Mindfulness are generally considered a comprehensive method of practice comprising all spiritual qualities, including effort (ātapa) and clear comprehension (sampajañña). A doubt then arises as to how the satipaṭṭhāna can be confined to merely right mindfulness. In this case, sammā-sati is the mindfulness suitable to or applied in the Four Foundations of Mindfulness. {418}

Another example is the development of concentration, of which there are four kinds.¹⁵⁵ The description of the fourth kind includes: When developed and expanded, this meditation leads to the destruction of the taints. One may wonder how concentration (samādhi), which is equivalent to ’tranquillity’ (samatha), can lead to the destruction of the taints without ’insight’ (vipassanā). Here, concentration must be understood as the core of a person’s meditation practice, like a field where various spiritual qualities gather to battle the defilements.¹⁵⁶ The development of concentration in this context is not isolated; it is used in conjunction with and as a support for other meditation techniques.¹⁵⁷

Kinds of Arahants

Of all the different kinds of noble beings (ariya-puggala) and those persons worthy of offerings (dakkhiṇeyya-puggala) outlined above, arahants are supreme. They have completed their training, developed expertise (asekha), finished their spiritual cultivation (bhāvita), and reached the goal. Nothing remains for them to do in respect to personal wellbeing; instead, they act for others’ wellbeing, for the welfare and happiness of the manyfolk, out of compassion for the world.

There are two kinds of arahants, who can be further subdivided according to their special qualities:

1. ’Those liberated through wisdom’ (paññā-vimutta): Arahants who emphasize insight meditation, relying on concentration only to the necessary degree for realizing the destruction of the taints. They do not attain jhānas above the fourth jhāna; they do not have the exceptional proficiency of the ’attainment of cessation’ (nirodha-samāpatti) or the five mundane ’supreme knowledges’ (abhiññā):

2. ’Those liberated in both ways’ (ubhatobhāga-vimutta): Arahants liberated from the body through the formless attainments and liberated by mind through the noble path. They have two moments of liberation: when suppressing the defilements by the power of concentration in jhāna (vikkhambhana) and when uprooting the defilements with wisdom (samuccheda):¹⁵⁹

After this subdivision a list of arahants looks like this:

1. Sukkhavipassaka: pure insight practitioners.

2. Paññāvimutta: those liberated by wisdom (apart from sukkhavipassaka).

3. Ubhatobhāga-vimutta: those liberated both ways.

4. Tevijja: those with the three kinds of direct knowledge.

5. Chaḷabhiñña: those with the six kinds of supreme knowledge.

6. Paṭisambhidappatta: those who have attained the four penetrating insights.¹⁶⁰

An arahant who is both a chaḷabhiñña and a paṭisambhidappatta is considered perfected in spiritual powers. {420}

Distinctions between Different Levels of Noble Beings

(See also the section on different levels of enlightenment presented earlier.)

Trainees (sekha) and Arahants

Here are several more important passages distinguishing trainees from those beyond training:

S. V. 327-8 describes the difference between a trainee’s abiding and the Tathāgata’s abiding: trainees dwell having (incompletely) abandoned the five hindrances; arahants have completely eliminated the five hindrances. The Abhidhamma makes this distinction: the four magga-samaṅgī and three phala-samaṅgī are sekha, arahants are asekha, and the remainder are neither trainees nor beyond training (Pug. 14).

Those Practising for Stream-Entry and Stream-Enterers

Stream-Enterers and Arahants

Non-returners and Arahants

Arahants Liberated by Wisdom and Arahants Liberated Both Ways

The Buddha and Those Liberated by Wisdom

Factors of Stream-Entry

So far the discussion has focused on those who have reached the highest stage, of complete realization of Nibbāna. It is worthy, however, to recognize the many individuals, especially householders, who have ’entered the stream’ to Nibbāna or have caught a glimpse of Nibbāna. These individuals often have spouses and children, conducting their lives virtuously in the wider world.

In modern times, people’s understanding of and feeling for Nibbāna and enlightened beings has changed considerably. The view held by many people in the past of Nibbāna as a heavenly city of eternal bliss has changed into a view of extinction. Having less contact with Buddhist teachings and being influenced more by materialism has led people to see Nibbāna in a negative light, as something to be avoided. At the very least they see Nibbāna as something distant and without relevance to their lives. To address this problem, apart from instilling a correct understanding of Nibbāna, people should be encouraged to take special interest in the first stage of enlightenment – of stream-entry. The importance of stream-entry goes beyond an academic interest in Nibbāna and enlightened beings, but it often gets overlooked. The Buddha repeatedly taught:

The life of a stream-enterer does not appear alien or frightening to contemporary people; rather, it appears admirable. Many of the stream-enterers at the time of the Buddha were lay disciples and were exemplary people. They were virtuous, led contented family lives, and were engaged in society, helping their community and the Buddhist religion. Although stream-enterers have reached a level of realization, they still possess a subtle degree of defilement. They still grieve and lament when encountering separation.¹⁷³ They still have preferences and aversions like unawakened people, although these are attenuated and do not lead to serious misconduct. Their suffering is minor compared to the suffering they have abandoned. They are firmly established and secure in a happy, wholesome and faultless life. {882}

Prominent stream-enterers from the Buddha’s time include: Bimbisāra, King of Magadha, who offered Veḷuvana, the first Buddhist monastery, and who kept the weekly Observance Day precepts;¹⁷⁴ Anāthapiṇḍika, founder of the famous monastery of Jetavana and incomparable benefactor to the monastic community and to the poor;¹⁷⁵ Visākhā, foremost lay-woman supporter, who was renowned in the Kosala country – she was very active in promoting social welfare despite having twenty children of her own;¹⁷⁶ Jīvaka-Komārabhacca, celebrated physician of King Bimbisāra, of the Buddha, and of the monastic community, who is revered by traditional medicine practitioners to this day;¹⁷⁷ Nakulapitā and Nakulamātā, husband and wife who were utterly faithful to each other into old age and vowed to meet again in future lifetimes.¹⁷⁸

The attribute of a stream-enterer that was mentioned earlier is the abandonment of the first three fetters (saṁyojana) – personality-view, doubt, and attachment to rules and religious practices. Freedom from these fetters focuses on the absence of certain qualities. There is, however, much emphasis in the scriptures on positive, active qualities. There are many of these active qualities, but essentially they can be incorporated into a group of five qualities: faith (saddhā), moral conduct (sīla), learning (suta), generosity (cāga), and wisdom (paññā). Below is a description of the attributes of stream-enterers, both in terms of active, present qualities and of abandoned qualities.¹⁷⁹

Active Qualities

1. Faith: stream-enterers possess a firm trust in truth, goodness, and the law of cause and effect. They have confidence in wisdom, that it is possible for human beings to overcome suffering by realizing the conditioned nature of reality. They have faith in the virtuous people who follow this path of wisdom and have a profound respect for the Triple Gem (ratanattaya).¹⁸⁰ Their faith is secure and unshakeable because it is rooted in true understanding. {883}

2. Moral Conduct: their behaviour through body and speech is appropriate and their mode of livelihood is honest and upright. Their conduct is ’free’; it is not enslaved by craving (see Note Free Conduct). They act in accord with truth to promote virtue, simplicity, dispassion, peace, and concentration. Generally speaking, this means following the five precepts, which is considered perfect moral conduct.

3. Learning: ’those learned in spiritual knowledge’ (sutavant); they have studied the ’noble teachings’ (ariya-dhamma).¹⁸¹

4. Generosity: they delight in giving and sharing; they relinquish what they have for others; they are not stingy.

5. Wisdom: they possess the knowledge of a ’learner’ (sekha): they see clearly into the Four Noble Truths, Dependent Origination, and the three characteristics; they abandon all wrong view (micchā-diṭṭhi); they have no doubt concerning the Four Noble Truths; they know the world as it truly is.

6. Social Action: stream-enterers abide by the ’virtues conducive to communal life’ (sārāṇīya-dhamma), which engender social unity and concord. They do this perfectly because they maintain the last virtue (of right view, below), which connects all the others. These virtues are as follows:

   1. Physical acts of lovingkindness (mettā-kāyakamma); mutual assistance and respect.

   2. Verbal acts of lovingkindness (mettā-vacīkamma); well-intentioned advice and instruction; well-mannered speech.

   3. Thoughts of lovingkindness (mettā-manokamma); thinking well of others; wishing to assist others; cheerful demeanour.

   4. Distributing lawful gains with others (sādhāraṇa-bhogitā).¹⁸²

   5. Possessing a similar virtuous conduct as one’s companions (sīla-sāmaññatā); acting in an agreeable manner.

   6. Sharing right, noble views with one’s companions (diṭṭhi-sāmaññatā), which lead to the end of suffering.

   In the scriptural passages that describe ’noble views’ (of virtue 6) there are two special characteristics mentioned of stream-enterers:

   1. If they have transgressed the discipline (vinaya), it is their nature to confess this transgression without delay to their teacher or wise companions and to show restraint in the future. This restraint is similar to that shown by a young child who has touched a burning coal and immediately retracts his hand. {884}

   2. Although stream-enterers endeavour to assist their companions with various activities, they have a keen interest for training in the higher virtue, the higher mind, and the higher wisdom. Just as a cow with a new calf, while she grazes watches her calf, so too does a stream-enterer look to both the collective good and to personal progress on the path.¹⁸³

7. Happiness: stream-enterers have begun to experience transcendent happiness, which is profound and independent of material things. They have realized ’noble liberation’ (ariya-vimutti).

Abandoned Qualities

1. Three Fetters:

   1. Sakkāya-diṭṭhi: the delusion in ’self’; the mistaken belief in a ’self’, which leads to selfishness, conflict, and suffering.

   2. Vicikicchā: doubts and uncertainties concerning, for example, the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sangha, and the training. These doubts prevent the mind from rousing energy and advancing on the path.

   3. Sīlabbata-parāmāsa: the misapplication of moral precepts, rules, observances, and traditions; these rules are not used as they are intended, as tools for developing such qualities as tranquillity and concentration. Instead, they are tainted by craving and fixed views, by seeking personal reward, enhancing self-stature, or blindly following others.

2. Five Kinds of Selfishness (macchariya):¹⁸⁴

   1. Possessiveness in regard to one’s dwelling (āvāsa-macchariya).

   2. Possessiveness in regard to one’s family, group, institution, etc.; partisanship (kula-macchariya).

   3. Possessiveness in regard to one’s wealth and good fortune (lābha-macchariya); preventing others from sharing these gains.

   4. Jealousy about one’s reputation and social standing (vaṇṇa-macchariya); displeasure when someone else competes for one’s gain or beauty; intolerance when hearing praise for others.

   5. Possessiveness in regard to the truth (dhamma-macchariya): possessiveness of knowledge and attainments; a fear that others will gain knowledge or attain realizations that match or excel one’s own.¹⁸⁵

3. Four Biases (agati):¹⁸⁶

   1. Bias caused by desire (chandāgati).

   2. Bias caused by aversion (dosāgati). {885}

   3. Bias caused by delusion or stupidity (mohāgati).

   4. Bias caused by fear (bhayāgati).¹⁸⁷

4. Defilement: they have abandoned coarse or acute greed (rāga),¹⁸⁸ hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha), which lead to an unhappy existence; stream-enterers do not commit any serious misdeeds which would lead to perdition; they are secure from rebirth in ’states of woe’ (apāya).¹⁸⁹

5. Suffering: they have quelled mental suffering and misfortune arising from transgressions of the five precepts; the suffering remaining for stream-enterers is minor.¹⁹⁰

The active qualities and the abandoned qualities are two sides of the same coin. The abandonment of personality-view occurs with a profound understanding of the conditioned nature of reality. With the arising of this understanding, doubt vanishes and a solid confidence based on wisdom remains. At the same time, moral precepts are observed appropriately, leading to ’conduct pleasing to awakened beings’ (ariyakanta-sīla). The attachment to rules and observances ends. When a person develops generosity, selfishness wanes. Wisdom weakens the force of greed, hatred and delusion, which in turn frees a person from bias and clinging. The reduction of clinging leads to a release from suffering and an experience of great joy.

Stream-enterers are endowed with virtue and happiness. There is adequate virtue to ensure that they will not cause danger, distress or harm to anyone; on the contrary, their behaviour will benefit both themselves and others. This virtue is secure because it stems from thorough knowledge, which leads to a new way of seeing the world. As for happiness, stream-enterers have encountered a profound inner happiness that is of tremendous value. Although they still experience sensual or mundane pleasure, they are not carried away by this coarser form of happiness; they will not sacrifice the refined happiness to increase mundane happiness. Mundane happiness is balanced by transcendent happiness. This transcendent happiness is both a consequence of and a supporting factor for virtue; it is confirmation that a person will not regress and it supports further spiritual growth.

Stream-entry is of great value to the person who has realized it and to society. The Buddha assigned stream-entry to the first stage of enlightenment; it is the point where life as an awakened being begins. Stream-enterers are ’true disciples’; they are part of the ’noble community’ (ariya-saṅgha), which is the ’crucible’ in which humanity is refined. {886}

The Buddha greatly emphasized the importance of stream-entry and urged his disciples to set it as a goal for their lives. He said that the realization of stream-entry is better than going to heaven, being an emperor, or attaining jhāna. A teacher who is free from sensual lust due to the power of concentrative attainments and who leads his many disciples to ’merge with Brahma’ in heaven is considered excellent, but he is surpassed by the stream-enterer who still has sensual lust.¹⁹¹

Those people who feel that Nibbāna is too distant to reach, too esoteric, too desolate or ethereal, should use the state of stream-entry as a bridge for understanding, because stream-entry is closer to their experience and easier to understand. At the same time, stream-entry is directly linked to Nibbāna, as it is an entry into the ’stream leading to Nibbāna’ or is a ’first glimpse’ (paṭhama-dassana) of Nibbāna.¹⁹³ This dual-benefited approach is appropriate for contemporary people and still accords with the Buddha’s principles. Stream-entry should be the goal of individual practitioners and of the Buddhist community as a whole. In the meantime, one can reach an intermediate stage, as either a ’faith-devotee’ (saddhānusārī) or a ’truth-devotee’ (dhammānusārī, see Note Faith- and Truth-devotees), whose members are considered to ’have approached stream-entry’, ’dwell in the Path’, and ’progress without falling back’, and are sometimes included as ’noble’ (ariya) or ’true disciples’ (sāvaka-saṅgha).

Those who hesitate or for some reason are delayed can dwell in the preparatory stages of ’virtuous person’ (kalyāṇa-puthujjana, see Note Virtuous Person), ’possessing beautiful qualities’,¹⁹⁴ or ’learned noble disciple’ (sutavā ariyasāvaka).¹⁹⁵ {887} These individuals have studied the ’noble teachings’ (ariya-dhamma); they have responded to the ’call’ of the truth. They have escaped from the ’jungle’ (of confusion) and recognized the starting point of the path. Although they may still falter, they possess the necessary factors to begin the journey. At the outset, these virtuous persons, whose faith, moral conduct, generosity and wisdom is not yet truly secure, can generate the quality of ’learning’ (suta) – of having ’listened’, of seeking knowledge – until they reach the stage of ’great learning’ (bahussuta), of being steadfast in knowledge.

It is precisely this learning (suta) that helps in the development of the noble path, beginning with a recognition of where the path begins.¹⁹⁶ Indeed, correct understanding leads to faith, moral conduct, generosity and wisdom, because faith springs from such an understanding, followed by the energy to cultivate other virtues. These five qualities – learning, faith, morality, generosity and wisdom – are called the five mundane ’accomplishments’ (sampadā)¹⁹⁷ or the five mundane ’treasures’ (vaḍḍhi).¹⁹⁸ With the attainment of stream-entry, these five accomplishments or treasures become transcendent qualities.

A notable feature of stream-enterers is that they are not possessive of their material wealth:

Because of this unbounded generosity, stream-enterers grow in virtue but may diminish in material wealth, and the Buddha even established a training rule as a result of this trait. If the bhikkhu sangha sees that members of a family have increasing faith but diminishing wealth, it can formally assign them the title of sekha (’learner’), regardless of whether they are actually enlightened or not. {888} (It is usually not possible to determine the level of realization in another. Here, behaviour is used as the standard.) If a monk who is not ill and has not been previously invited goes to members of this family and eats their food, he transgresses one of the training rules.¹⁹⁹

From this example, one can discern two important principles. First, this training rule focuses on and declares a person’s inner, spiritual qualities for the benefit of the community, by dictating a standard of behaviour suitable to the circumstances. Second, it reveals how those people who are endowed with certain qualities – whose faith is correctly aligned with the Buddhist teachings, or who have realized the Dhamma as stream-enterers – do not seek reward for their good deeds. They do not chase after pleasurable sense objects for gratification. These questions do not arise for them: ’I have done good; why don’t good things come back to me?’ or: ’I have been generous; why am I not rich? I haven’t got what I wanted.’

Stream-enterers possess not only the physical eye, which sees material things, but they have developed the ’eye of Dhamma’ (dhamma-cakkhu)²⁰⁰ or the ’wisdom eye’, which sees clearly into the truth. They have complete confidence in the power of goodness, a confidence that can never be shaken regardless of unfavourable material circumstances. When they have clearly seen the truth and walked the virtuous path, no one including devas can tempt them to deviate. They are steadfast in virtue. The commentaries use the example of Anāthapiṇḍika to show the degree of a stream-enterer’s rectitude.²⁰¹ They cannot be enticed or intimidated by devas; on the contrary, devas pay respect to them. {889}

Buddha’s Words on Stream-Enterers

Here are some passages from the Pali Canon concerning stream-enterers:

Epithets and Descriptions

General Criteria

Of these three criteria, the four factors of stream-entry are direct attributes of stream-enterers. The remaining two criteria are a cause and an effect of these four factors, respectively. Understanding the ’noble method’ (the law of Dependent Origination) is a cause for these factors of stream-entry, because when wisdom sees this law of nature, faith is stable and based on reason, and conduct is in accord with moral principles. The first criterion is an effect, because when faith and conduct reach this stage, the ’fearful retributions’ cease. Therefore, the Pali Canon generally refers solely to the four factors of stream-entry, as the constant attribute of stream-enterers:

The four factors of stream-entry are sometimes called a ’Dhamma-lens’ or ’Dhamma-mirror’ (dhammādāsa) for stream-enterers to use for inspection and self-assessment.²¹⁰ They are sometimes called an ’ocean of merit’, ’ocean of good fortune’, and ’food for joy’.²¹¹ At other times they are referred to as supreme abidings for living happily in the present (diṭṭhadhamma-sukhavihāra).²¹² Virtuous conduct is sometimes expanded into the three pure physical actions and the four pure verbal actions, together referred to as the seven essential qualities (saddhamma), and the factors of stream-entry are in this case called the four ’desirable states’ (ākaṅkhiya-ṭhāna).²¹³ In some passages the factors of stream-entry are divided into the ten ’right states’ (sammatta): the Eightfold Path plus right knowledge (sammā-ñāṇa) and right deliverance (sammā-vimutti).²¹⁴ {893}

An alternative presentation of the four factors of stream-entry replaces moral conduct (sīla) with generosity (cāga):

All of the attributes of stream-enterers fall under the qualities of faith, moral conduct, learning, generosity and wisdom. For this reason, the Buddha frequently encouraged his disciples to develop these qualities and to use them as a measuring stick for the progress of awakened beings. Likewise, he suggested they be used to measure the progress of all his disciples, including those not yet enlightened:

Even if a person has not mastered these five qualities, recollecting someone else who has mastered them brings ease of mind and acts as an incentive for spiritual practice: {894}

There are several instances when the Buddha presented variant definitions for some of these five qualities:

1. Faith (saddhā): apart from the firm confidence with wisdom in the three ’jewels’ as found in the four factors of stream-entry, the Buddha often presented another definition:

   And what is the accomplishment in faith? Here, a noble disciple has faith; he has faith in the enlightenment of the Tathāgata thus: ’The Blessed One is an arahant … the Awakened One, the Blessed One.’²¹⁹ {895}

   E.g.: A. II. 66; A. III. 53; A. IV. 284, 288, 324-5, 363-4.

2. Moral conduct (sīla): on many occasions, the Buddha defined moral conduct very simply, as the five precepts:

   Here, a noble disciple abstains from the destruction of life, from stealing, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquors and intoxicants which are a basis for negligence.²²⁰

   From the surrounding material it is fair to say that these two passages on faith and conduct refer to ’noble’ disciples who have not yet reached a stage of awakening, as will become clear from additional quotations below.²²¹

3. Learning (suta): in addition to having encountered the noble ones and being skilled in the noble teaching (ariya-dhamma), as mentioned earlier, the Buddha gave an alternative definition:

   And what is the treasure of learning? Here, a noble disciple is one of great knowledge, and bears in mind and retains what he has learned. In these teachings, beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle, and beautiful in the end, which in spirit and letter proclaim the absolutely perfected and purified holy life, he is erudite, he remembers them, recites them, is well-versed in them, and penetrates them with vision.²²²

   A. III. 53.

4. Generosity (cāga): there are normally no variant definitions from that presented earlier.

5. Wisdom (paññā): apart from an understanding of Dependent Origination, the Buddha presented definitions that can also be applied to ’noble’ disciples who are not yet awakened:

   And what is the treasure of wisdom? Here, a noble disciple is wise, he possesses wisdom that penetrates arising and passing away, which is noble and pierces defilement, leading to the complete destruction of suffering.²²³

   A. III. 53.

   And what is accomplishment in wisdom? One who dwells with a heart overcome by covetousness and greed, by ill-will, by sloth and torpor, by restlessness and worry, and by doubt does what he should avoid and fails in his duty; as a consequence his fame and happiness diminish. When a noble disciple thus understands that these qualities are defilements of the mind, he abandons them. When he has abandoned them, he is called a noble disciple of great wisdom, of vast wisdom, one who sees the path of prosperity, one endowed with wisdom. This is called accomplishment in wisdom.²²⁴ {896}

   A. II. 67.

One passage from the Pali Canon enumerates six qualities of a stream-enterer:

Abandoned Qualities and Qualities of Fruition

(Trans.: for additional quotations, see Appendix 5.)

Shortly before the First Recitation, after the Buddha’s death, four hundred and ninety-nine arahants were selected to attend along with Ven. Ānanda, who was still a stream-enterer. He was invited because he had spent a long time learning the Dhammavinaya directly from the Buddha, and because he was a stream-enterer:

\

Attributes and Conduct before Attaining Stream-Entry

Compare the qualities here of faith, moral conduct, generosity and wisdom with these same qualities described earlier in passages directly relating to stream-enterers:

Let us have another look at faith devotees (saddhānusārī) and truth devotees (dhammānusārī), who rank just below stream-enterers:

There is another group of four factors of stream-entry, but here, rather than referring to the qualities of a stream-enterer, they are modes of spiritual practice that lead to stream-entry:

These four qualities lead not only to stream-entry but to all levels of wisdom, ending in the realization of arahantship. They may be referred to by many other names, but because the Buddha emphasized them in this context they are called the ’factors for stream-entry’.²⁴⁰ {902}

Additional Points on the Attributes of Stream-Enterers

Let us look more closely at the five qualities of faith, moral conduct, learning, generosity and wisdom, which incorporate the four factors of stream-entry (sotāpattiyaṅga). The Buddha emphasized these qualities and used them as benchmarks for progress in relation to ’noble disciples’, both before the realization of stream-entry and after. Special attention should be given to the quality of faith: why did the Buddha mention faith every time he discussed this stage of practice, even though Buddhism considers wisdom to be the supreme quality for spiritual development?

These five qualities are referred to as the five ’accomplishments’ (sampadā), the five ’treasures’ (dhana), and the five qualities of ’growth’ (vaḍḍhi):

Faith (saddhā)

Trust and conviction resulting from reasoned and wise contemplation. There are three aspects to faith:

1. Faith in the Buddha: the existence of the Buddha is proof that through their own efforts and by mindfulness and wisdom human beings are able to realize the highest truth. Human beings can be trained and cultivated, both in regard to proper conduct vis-à-vis their external environment and in regard to spiritual qualities. They are able to develop wisdom to the point that they escape from the oppression by mental defilement and make an end of suffering, realizing supreme deliverance. With this realization human beings become excellent and self-reliant; they need not petition a divinity (e.g. devas, Māra or Brahma) to intercede on their behalf. By recognizing the exceptional virtues of the Buddha who has reached this realization, a person with faith should cultivate these virtues in him- or herself and try to reach the truth that the Buddha has made known.

2. Faith in the Dhamma – the Truth or the highest good – which the Buddha discovered and revealed. {903} This truth is stable, certain and autonomous; it is a natural law of cause and effect. It does not rely on the appearance of a Buddha; it is neutral and impartial to all beings. It invites investigation and spiritual practice. Every person who has developed himself adequately and has sufficient wisdom can realize this truth. This realization leads to liberation and the end of suffering.

3. Faith in the Sangha, the model community. This community acts as proof that every person has the potential to realize the highest truth realized by the Buddha. The community only comes into existence, however, when individuals allow the truth to manifest through spiritual practice. This community is made up of people with different levels of maturity and development, but is unified by the adherence to the same standards: they have the Dhamma as their focus and standard of measurement and they are the vessels through which the Dhamma manifests. One should treasure and participate in the virtue of this community, because the Sangha acts more than any other community to preserve the Dhamma in the world; it is the source for goodness and wellbeing to spread in the world.

The three aspects of faith are: a trust that truth – a natural law of cause and effect – exists; human beings are capable of realizing this truth; and there are exceptional people who have reached this truth and share it with others. Those who have confidence in this truth and in the human potential to realize it will strive to generate the results, especially through proper action. They believe in the causal link between action and the fruits of action, and this belief leads to steadfast ethical behaviour and a solid understanding. They do not rely primarily on external forces for help. And they trust that together people can build a virtuous or ideal community, which is made up of individuals who have trained themselves and realized the truth of the Buddha. By reflecting on causality, a person has a firm conviction that the Buddha was truly awakened, that his teachings accord with the truth, and that it is of utmost benefit to join the community of enlightened disciples who have followed this teaching.

Moral Conduct (sīla)

A moral code: the entire system of conduct covering both private behaviour and one’s interaction with society through physical actions and speech, including one’s livelihood. This code of conduct is established to assist in the attainment of the highest good. Its aim is to prevent unskilful actions and promote good actions by teaching people to see the relationship between their deeds and their environment. It brings about stability, both personal and social, and is a foundation for higher spiritual practice. It helps to perfect physical and verbal conduct and emphasizes harmonious coexistence. {904} Such a harmonious social environment allows each individual to live at peace and to train him or herself in order to reach higher states of realization.

For the general public, the basic code of conduct that supports wellbeing is the five precepts: to not violate living creatures, to not violate others’ property, to not violate loving relationships, to not violate truth by speaking falsely or aggressively, and to not impair mindfulness and clear comprehension (sampajañña) by using addictive substances.²⁴¹ Certain communities establish more intricate and refined codes of conduct, for example the eight precepts, the ten precepts, and the two hundred and twenty-seven precepts, for an ordered discipline and to reach the goal of that specific community.

There are several attributes of Buddhist morality:

1. it creates a conducive external environment for spiritual practice leading to the highest goal;

2. it promotes peace and harmony within a community, so that each individual can pursue his or her activities in comfort; and

3. the restraint of moral conduct leads to self-discipline and a reduction of mental impurity. Moral conduct makes a person receptive to wholesome qualities. In particular it is a basis for concentration.²⁴²

Although there are levels of moral conduct higher than the five precepts, all desirable codes of conduct required for Dhamma practice (referred to as ’conduct cherished by the noble ones’ – ariyakanta-sīla) share the same essence and have the same criteria: they are followed neither out of desire for pleasurable rewards, nor out of attachment, nor out of fixed views on morality, nor by blindly following social customs. They are followed by understanding the true purpose of moral precepts. For lay Buddhists who have this proper perspective, observing the five precepts is enough to lead to stream-entry.

Learning (suta)

’That which is heard’; knowledge gained from listening, reading, studying, news media, or any other sources; knowledge of the ’noble teachings’ (ariya-dhamma) – the teachings of enlightened beings – which reveal the highest way of life and the path to awakening. Knowledge gained for careers and general activities in the world (for example in the arts and sciences) is insufficient to become a ’noble disciple’. {905} Worldly knowledge varies between different individuals and it is not always harmless. Although it is developed to solve problems and to generate happiness, often it has the opposite desired effect and creates all sorts of complications. Therefore it is not the same as the learning referred to here.

The knowledge of a noble disciple is always beneficial. It is the knowledge that every person needs to lead a good life. It enables people to apply professional knowledge to promote personal and social wellbeing. It prevents harm and solves problems in a truly effective way. And most importantly, it alone can lead an ordinary person to become enlightened. For professional knowledge to be an effective tool for solving problems it must be aligned with the knowledge of the noble teachings. All these forms of knowledge, however, including the knowledge of noble teachings, resemble at first a storeroom containing raw materials. The knowledge has not yet been applied to truly settle one’s affairs. After acquiring knowledge a person assimilates it and makes it his own, as a particular view or belief. But for the knowledge to be truly effective, it must become an instrument for wisdom, at which point it develops into analytical and discriminative knowledge and is integrated into systematic, comprehensive practice (dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti).

Generosity (cāga)

True giving; outward relinquishment by giving material things and inward relinquishment by abandoning greed; an absence of stinginess. Noble disciples do not seek reward (material gain, prestige, happiness or heaven) in exchange for their gifts. The expression in the suttas, ’delighting in giving and sharing’ (dānasaṁvibhāga-rata), indicates that noble disciples derive joy from the very act of giving. They do not experience the suffering or disappointment from such thoughts as: ’I have given but received nothing in return.’ Noble disciples are endowed with lovingkindness and compassion. Without the urge to acquire or to possess, the heart becomes expansive and sympathy for others arises. One clearly sees other people’s hardship and suffering, and naturally inclines to generosity. One finds joy in giving, by alleviating others’ suffering and making them happy. The goodness in the act of giving becomes the reward. By giving, the world becomes a happier place. {906} In addition, generosity purifies the heart, reduces mental impurities, and leads a person closer to the goal of Buddhism.²⁴³ As Ven. Sāriputta said:

Besides generous assistance in a wider context, noble disciples are generous with their fellow companions. They willingly relinquish their personal belongings for public consumption, to benefit the virtuous members of their community.

Because noble disciples are ’superior persons’ (sappurisa), they give the ’gifts of a good person’ (sappurisa-dāna). (See Note Qualities of Giving)

One of these qualities is to give respectfully; a noble disciple values the recipient, the gift, and the act of giving. He gives willingly and without resentment; no matter how low the recipient’s social standing, he does not hold the person in contempt, acting with kindness and the intention to help.²⁴⁵

Wisdom (paññā)

Comprehensive knowledge; clear knowing; discriminative knowledge; reasoned analysis. A noble disciple distinguishes between true and false, good and bad, right and wrong, appropriate and inappropriate, benefit and harm. It is a practical knowledge; a person understands causality and understands how to relate to conditions in order to solve problems. This knowledge applies specifically to human suffering: it is used to alleviate suffering and to live a good life. {907} There are many ways to refer to this wisdom, including knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, knowledge of Dependent Origination, and knowledge free from the five hindrances (nīvaraṇa). The definition of the ’accomplishment of wisdom’ (paññā-sampadā) as an attribute of a noble disciple is: ’Wisdom that penetrates arising and passing away, which is noble and pierces defilement, leading to the complete destruction of suffering.’²⁴⁶

No matter what level of expertise a person has in worldly knowledge, as a prominent politician, brilliant businessman, clever inventor, or skilled researcher, for example, the knowledge of a noble disciple is indispensable for every person in solving life’s problems and living honourably.

Learning (suta) can be a conditioning factor for wisdom: it provides information and expands a person’s understanding. It is not only Dhamma learning that supports wisdom; worldly knowledge, especially life experience, can foster an understanding of the truth. A person skilled in reflection (yoniso-manasikāra) gains an understanding of the world and of life from applying technical or professional knowledge. The decisive factor for spiritual progress, however, is wisdom. Some people are highly educated but are unable to reflect; they therefore do not grow wise and do not truly benefit from their knowledge. Some people have only a meagre level of formal education but are very wise; their wise reflection enables them to solve problems. For a wise person, increased knowledge of any kind is used to their advantage. Because a wise person can still prosper despite a shortage of formal learning, there are many occasions where the number of attributes of noble disciples is reduced from five to four, leaving faith, conduct, generosity and wisdom.

Wisdom fulfils not only learning (suta); it also validates all the other factors of a noble disciple. Wisdom ensures that faith is correct, not erring towards gullibility. Wisdom leads to suitable moral conduct, which is praised by awakened beings and free from clinging to rules and practices. Wisdom brings about true relinquishment, because as long as one does not truly understand the world and phenomena, and one has not discovered a more refined happiness, it is natural that one takes pleasure in sensuality. With a lack of wisdom it is difficult to avoid being preoccupied by worldly pleasures and to be generous without wishing for some form of sense pleasure or other reward. Wisdom thus unites the other factors; it is the essential factor of a noble disciple and is the aim of each successive level of spiritual practice.

To sum up, there are four primary virtues of a noble disciple: {908}

1. Saddhā: faith in the wisdom, virtue, and perseverance of human beings; these qualities promote a realization of the truth and the highest good as taught by the Buddha and his disciples. This faith fosters the building of a virtuous society, established on principles of truth.

2. Sīla: self-discipline, which leads to an appropriate behaviour and relationship to others and to one’s environment. This conduct supports the blossoming of virtue in an individual and fosters social harmony.

3. Cāga: relinquishment, which reduces selfishness and prepares a person to assist others.

4. Paññā: wisdom; penetrative knowledge of things as they truly are, as following laws of nature, as arising and passing away according to causes and conditions. This knowledge accompanied by a free mind promotes a proper relationship to things and an appropriate, balanced conduct. A person then knows how to apply or develop the other virtues in a suitable way.

Learning (suta) acquired by any form – by instruction, encouragement, advice, or study – supports the development of the other virtues and brings about greater success, but the required amount of learning and the level of success depends on a person’s ability to reflect with wisdom.

Let us return to the first virtue of faith (saddhā) and examine how it is a crucial factor at the beginning of spiritual practice. Normally, faith is divided into three groups: faith in the Buddha, faith in the Dhamma, and faith in the Sangha. Occasionally, a single, precise definition is presented, especially when describing the faith of a noble disciple before the realization of stream-entry: [A person] has faith in the enlightenment of the Tathāgata thus: ’The Blessed One is an arahant … the Awakened One.’ This form of faith is called ’faith in the Tathāgata’s awakening’ (tathāgatabodhi-saddhā, see Note Faith in the Tathāgata’s Awakening). It is faith in the wisdom of the Buddha, who is considered the archetype, representative, or pioneer for all human beings.

The Buddha’s awakening confirms that all human beings are capable of realizing the truth and reaching the highest good through mindfulness, wisdom and disciplined effort. The Buddha compared himself to a baby chick who is the first to peck its way through the eggshell of ignorance,²⁴⁷ and to a discoverer of an ancient path who reveals this path to humanity.²⁴⁸ Faith in the Buddha’s awakening is thus equivalent to faith in the capability and wisdom of human beings. {909} Or more succinctly, it is self-confidence or faith in oneself. This confidence is not selfish belief or pride, but rather confidence in being human or an objective trust in humanity. One believes in the human potential for wisdom, that every person can reach the highest goal through spiritual training and satisfy the greatest of human aspirations.²⁴⁹ The Buddha is the symbol of self-belief; he was the first person to assert this human potential and the first person to not attribute enlightenment to a divine or supernatural power.

Effectively, faith in the Buddha’s awakening encompasses faith in the Triple Gem: there is trust that human beings can develop wisdom to the point of resolving even the most refined difficulties in the heart, and they are able to reach the highest liberation and complete happiness, just as the Buddha was able to accomplish; there is trust that these principles of practice and the highest goal are aspects of truth based on natural laws; and there is trust that there are people who have reached this goal, who comprise a noble community, have verified the truth, propagate the Dhamma, spread blessings, and are fully prepared to assist others in joining this noble community.

Although Buddhism advocates wisdom, faith is an essential quality at the beginning stages of practice, before a person realizes his or her potential and perfects wisdom. Faith here is different from what is commonly understood and should not be mistaken for blind faith; it is faith in wisdom, linked with wisdom, and leads to wisdom.

There are two important aspects to faith in the Triple Gem or to faith in the Buddha’s awakening. First, the entire teaching in Buddhism, either of the highest goal or of modes of practice, rests on the principle that human beings are capable of following in the Buddha’s footsteps and realizing the truth through their own effort and wisdom. There exists no external, supreme source of power surpassing that of human beings. If this principle were to be false, then the entire Buddhist system of practice and the stated goal would be meaningless and void. {910} Second, if a Buddhist disciple does not have trust in this human potential, he will be unable to progress along the path of Buddhism. How would he be able to devote himself to practice? In fact, he would not be a true disciple of the Buddha. Faith in the Buddha’s awakening is thus an essential quality for a Buddhist.²⁵⁰

Stream-entry is a valid goal for Buddhist practitioners and reaching this essential stage of awakening should be encouraged. The related factors of faith, conduct, learning, generosity, and wisdom, which the Buddha repeatedly taught, and when developed can be considered equivalent to stream-entry, should also be emphasized. These five factors can be developed gradually, both before the realization of stream-entry and after, and they are relevant to the present time.

Today’s society is in need of faith that is based on reason not credulity, and of trust in the human potential for reaching the highest good.

Society requires an understanding of the true spirit of moral conduct, as connected to other spiritual qualities; this conduct then guides and protects society.

In today’s society there is an abundance of learning and a profusion of information, but it often appears to create increased confusion and difficulty for people. Society requires an education in noble principles that reveals the essential meaning of life and points out ways of disentanglement from problems; such learning leads to self-sufficiency and suitable action. {911}

Today’s society faces increasingly dire economic problems, which require self-sacrifice, generosity and mutual assistance coming from a pure heart. The earth no longer has the resources to sustain people’s unbridled greed. People need to discover the happiness that comes from giving and sharing and that leads to social harmony.

Contemporary society is full of people who take pride in their intelligence because they have received a formal education. They are able to accomplish extraordinary things and wield a certain power over nature and the environment. People have become expert at worldly knowledge to the extent that their power is exceptional. But because they lack transcendent wisdom, they have only begun to penetrate the mysteries of the universe. As a result of pride, people risk falling into a pit created by their own intelligence; they meet with obstruction on the physical level and frustration in their hearts. To solve these problems, people require noble wisdom.²⁵¹

Looking at the state of the world today and the widespread behaviour of people, there are two outstanding qualities of a stream-enterer that should be emphasized as guidelines for living:

First, stream-enterers have a firm understanding of the law of cause and effect. Their trust in wisdom is adequately strong to expect successful results from actions based on mindfulness and balanced effort, and in line with causality.²⁵² They do not rely on fate or petition a supernatural force from outside to intercede on their behalf. However, because their wisdom is not yet complete, their confidence is not self-sustaining. They still rely on someone else who has reached the truth and leads the way. This is faith in the Buddha’s awakening or faith in the Triple Gem. This is the highest and purest level of faith; thereafter wisdom is perfected and replaces faith. The wisdom of stream-enterers is not yet absolute; their wisdom is reinforced by faith.

Second, stream-enterers are firmly established on the path to awakening. Their understanding of the world is sufficient to not be influenced by defilement nor to overrate worldly conditions (loka-dhamma).²⁵³ They have begun to experience transcendent joy and freedom, which brings about an appreciation of the truth. They develop chanda: enthusiasm and love for truth. They desire truth so much that there is no chance of them returning to a fascination with material pleasures. Unlike ordinary people, they seek no reward – of material gain, honour, fame, praise, pleasure or heaven – from their virtuous conduct (sīla) or from acts of generosity (cāga). Their moral conduct is steadfast; they are not discouraged if they do not reap these aforementioned rewards. {912}

This Dhammapada verse illustrates the life of a stream-enterer:

Let us return to the Buddha’s frequent teaching:

Leaders of a family, an organization, or a business who really deserve the title of leader and fulfil their responsibility are able to foster the five qualities of stream-entry in their relatives, dependents and employees:

Besides encouraging general assistance to family and friends, the Buddha gave a specific teaching concerning the factors of stream-entry in reference to repaying the goodness of one’s parents:

Appendix 1: Sīlabbata-parāmāsa

Sīlabbata-parāmāsa is one of the most misunderstood of the ten fetters. {422} In the Suttanipāta, the Buddha often talks about the wrong view of certain people who believe that purity is gained solely by following moral precepts and religious practices.²⁵⁵ The term ’purity’ (suddhi) here refers to the goal of the religious life, equivalent to liberation (vimutti).²⁵⁶ This wrong view may manifest in observing precepts and practices in order to go to heaven, as revealed in this common passage from the suttas: He has such a view as this: ’By this moral precept or austerity or asceticism or celibate life I shall become some kind of god or divine being.’²⁵⁷ Noble disciples – the enlightened ones and true sages – do not hold this view and have ’let go’ of moral precepts and religious practices.²⁵⁸ There are many passages in the Mahāniddesa and Cūḷaniddesa explaining this attachment to precepts and observances. For example:

This explanation helps clarify the definition of sīlabbata-parāmāsa from the Abhidhamma: Sīlabbata-parāmāsa is this manner of view and belief of ascetics and brahmins outside (of this Dhammavinaya): ’Purity stems from keeping moral precepts and austerities.’²⁶⁰ The phrase ’outside (of this Dhammavinaya)’ can lead some people to wrongly understand that sīlabbata-parāmāsa is found only in other religions. This passage from the Abhidhamma is merely an example; it can be reworded as: beliefs like those of other (non-Buddhist) ascetics and brahmins. In fact, one need not add these words ’other’ or ’outside’ at all. The passages in the Suttanipāta, Mahāniddesa,²⁶¹ or commentaries²⁶² do not use these words. For if a person clings to this wrong view, even if one is Buddhist, one is ’outside’.

Besides being a deep-rooted misunderstanding, this blind faith in moral precepts and religious practices reveals an inherent craving, for example a wish to go to heaven.

Sīlabbata-parāmāsa is composed of the words sīla (morality, moral precept), vata (austerity, religious practice), and parāmāsa (extreme attachment). The words sīla and vata are explained in the Mahāniddesa, as defined above.²⁶³ The Mahāniddesa elaborates by saying that some things are both sīla and vata, while others are vata but not sīla. For example, in the bhikkhu discipline (Vinaya) those aspects having to do with self-control (saṁyama or saññama), restraint (saṁvara), and moral integrity are sīla. Those aspects having to do with vows or observances are vata. Examples of practices that are vata but not sīla are the ascetic practices (dhutaṅga-vata), e.g. vowing to live in the forest, eat only food gathered on almsround, and wear rag-robes.²⁶⁴ In regard to monks of other traditions who keep for example the ’dog practice’ (kukkura-vata) in order to be reborn in heaven, the commentaries say that sīla is the behaviour mimicking dogs and vata the particular routines of such a practice.²⁶⁵ In regard to Buddhists, an example of sīla is keeping the five precepts and of vata is keeping the ascetic practices.²⁶⁶ In regard to bhikkhus, the commentaries occasionally say that the four kinds of pure morality (pārisuddhi-sīla) are sīla and the thirteen ascetic practices are vata.²⁶⁷

Parāmāsa is sometimes translated as ’caress’ or ’fondle’ but its general meaning in the Pali Canon is ’seize’ or ’take hold’, e.g.: a monk ’grabs hold’ of a layman;²⁶⁸ Dīghāvu ’holds’ the king of Kāsi’s head to kill him;²⁶⁹ the Buddha is not ’attached’ to what he knows;²⁷⁰ one should not ’take’ that which is not freely given;²⁷¹ ’seizing’ rods and swords to fight.²⁷² {423} The definition of ’caress’ probably comes from the Jātaka stories describing the birth of Suvaṇṇasāma, Kusa and Maṇḍavya, where a holy man touches the mothers’ navels.²⁷³ Perhaps it is also influenced by Vin. I. 121 which defines parāmasanā as ’stroke’ or ’rub’ (ito cito ca sañcopanā). The principal meaning of parāmāsa, however, is clearly defined as: sabhāvaṁ atikkamitvā parato āmasatīti parāmāso – ’to grasp at, exceed, and deviate from reality’. One overreaches, by exceeding or distorting the truth, making more of something than it actually is.²⁷⁴ For example, one may mistakenly believe something to be permanent which is in fact fleeting. Precepts and religious practices are established as a foundation for spiritual development; but one may miss the point and believe that liberation comes merely from keeping these rules and practices.

Sīlabbata-parāmāsa is a belief or view (diṭṭhi).²⁷⁵ One may ask how this fetter is distinct from the first fetter – sakkāya-diṭṭhi – which is also a belief. The commentaries explain that sakkāya-diṭṭhi, the firm belief in ’self’, is a view inherent in most people and does not require logical reasoning or transmission from others. Sīlabbata-parāmāsa has an external or social context; it is related to what a person considers right and wrong conduct.²⁷⁶ Because it pertains to spiritual practice, the commentaries thus designate sīlabbata-parāmāsa under the category of ’self-mortification’ (attakilamathānuyoga), one of the two extremes to be avoided by Buddhists in order to walk the Middle Way.²⁷⁷

Parāmāsa is often found in the past participle form as parāmaṭṭha (’touched’, ’grasped’), and has the meaning of defiled or tainted. Something is tainted because it has been ’smeared’ by craving: one keeps rules and precepts to gain a reward (wealth, fame, praise, bliss, etc.) or to be reborn in whatever state one’s religion professes. Pure morality is called aparāmaṭṭha: it is not stained by craving. One follows moral standards with wisdom and independence; one is not enslaved to craving and fixed views. This is the sīla of stream-enterers.²⁷⁸

A further consequence of this attachment to rules and practices is the debate between people about who is right and wrong. It can generate arrogance and conceit, looking down on those who are deemed less strict or less ethical.²⁷⁹

Sīlabbata-parāmāsa results from people unquestioningly following others; a symptom of the blind leading the blind. Some people see rules and practices as sacred or magical rites or ceremonies. Others follow the rules unwillingly, seeing them as arbitrary commandments; they do not see the harm in transgressing the rules nor do they see the benefits of restraint. Others again seek good luck or sensual pleasures by observing these rules and practices.

Keeping moral precepts and observing religious duties correctly is not sīlabbata-parāmāsa. One knows their true purpose, that they should be used for spiritual training, as a basis for concentration, for peace and simplicity, and to promote goodness in society. One sees clearly the harm in oppression of others. One follows moral precepts willingly by having insight into their benefits, feeling shame in doing wrong, and generating enthusiasm for the good. Eventually true moral conduct becomes automatic and natural; no training or compulsion is required because the defilements that cause evil are gone.

Non-violence is one of the six devotions practised by arahants, not because they cling to rules and practices but because they are free from greed, hatred and delusion.²⁸⁰ {424} At first, moral behaviour is normal behaviour because of habit and the strength of one’s determination. Later, moral behaviour is normal behaviour because the causes for evil and unwholesomeness have all been eliminated. Someone who keeps moral precepts correctly is called sīlavatūpapanna (’endowed with ethics’)²⁸¹ or sīlabbata-sampanna (’perfect in morality’).²⁸² To say that purity is gained by moral precepts is inaccurate, but to say purity is gained without moral precepts is also inaccurate.²⁸³ Religious observances and ceremonies may not be a required part of spiritual practice, especially for the laity, but pure (aparāmaṭṭha) morality – not diverging from truth and unblemished by craving – is an essential basis for liberation.²⁸⁴

Here is a way of measuring conduct: if by keeping precepts and religious practices unwholesome qualities increase and wholesome qualities wane then that conduct is incorrect; but if wholesome qualities increase and unwholesome qualities wane then that conduct will bear good fruit.²⁸⁵

As long as one is unawakened (puthujjana) there will be some degree of clinging to and mistaken application of moral precepts and religious practices, commensurate with one’s share of craving, wrong view, and delusion. At least one will need to check and counter certain impulses. For stream-enterers coarse defilements have been quelled and they are thus called ’perfect in moral conduct’.²⁸⁶ They uphold rules and observances in just the right way, neither too laxly nor too strictly.

Appendix 2: The Link Between the Fourfold Self-Mastery (bhāvita) and the Four Kinds of Development (bhāvanā)

{383} In the Tipiṭaka, although there are many passages in which the Buddha mentions as a group the four aspects of an arahant’s complete development – i.e. he or she has gained self-mastery in body (bhāvita-kāya), virtue (bhāvita-sīla), mind (bhāvita-citta), and wisdom (bhāvita-paññā) – there is no single passage in which these four factors are defined together. There exist only cases in which one or a few of these factors are defined in specific circumstances, for example by correcting a misunderstanding about one or more of these aspects of development. This may be because at the Buddha’s time his disciples were familiar with these terms and there was thus no need to define them. (The passages containing definitions tend to be answers or explanations the Buddha gave to non-Buddhists, for example to wanderers and ascetics of other traditions.)

Similarly, the four kinds of development (bhāvanā) – which lead to self-mastery (bhāvita) – are not found together as a group in the Tipiṭaka, unless one counts the Burmese edition, which includes the Peṭakopadesa. This text includes the passage: ’By way of the Eightfold Path one also obtains the four kinds of development: moral development (sīla-bhāvanā), physical development (kāya-bhāvanā), mental development (citta-bhāvanā), and wisdom development (paññā-bhāvanā).’²⁸⁷

Other passages in the Tipiṭaka mention at most three kinds of development. Following on from the threefold training, the Saṅgīti Sutta arranges three kinds of development as follows: ’The threefold training entails the training in higher virtue (adhisīla-sikkhā), the training in higher mind (adhicitta-sikkhā), and the training in higher wisdom (adhipaññā-sikkhā); the three kinds of development entail physical development, mental development, and wisdom development’.²⁸⁸ Note also that the term sīla-bhāvanā does not appear at all in the Tipiṭaka (apart from the Peṭakopadesa mentioned above). The term sīla-bhāvanā thus only exists inherent in the term bhāvita-sīla.

In contrast, the commentaries frequently mention all four aspects of self-mastery (bhāvita) and all four kinds of development (bhāvanā) as unified groups, and provide a fair number of explanations for these terms. These explanations, however, sometimes conflict with one another.

The terms citta-bhāvanā and paññā-bhāvanā tend not to be a problem and are well understood. The confusion and contradictions tend to arise in regard to the terms kāya-bhāvanā and sīla-bhāvanā (and in extension to the terms bhāvita-kāya and bhāvita-sīla).

The Peṭakopadesa (cited above) seems to give definitions variant from other texts for all four kinds of development (bhāvanā). Note the following passage: ’In respect to the four kinds of development, by way of right effort and right livelihood the body is developed, by way of right speech and right effort moral conduct is developed, by way of right thought and right concentration the mind is developed, by way of right view and right mindfulness wisdom is developed. By way of these four kinds of development, these two factors come to fulfilment: the mind (citta) and wisdom (paññā).’²⁸⁹

Let us compare this passage with the Nettipakaraṇa (which is also included in the Burmese Tipiṭaka). Here, the four kinds of development (bhāvanā) are not explained, but the fourfold self-mastery (bhāvita), which is inherently connected to the kinds of development, is explained. One will see that here the explanation contradicts that of the Peṭakopadesa: ’Of the three groups (khandha), the body of morality (sīla-khandha) and the body of concentration (samādhi-khandha) constitute tranquillity meditation (samatha), while the body of wisdom (paññā-khandha) constitutes insight meditation (vipassanā)…. That monk is developed in body, developed in moral conduct, developed in mind, developed in wisdom. When the body is developed, two factors are developed: right action and right effort; when moral conduct is developed, two factors are developed: right speech and right livelihood; when the mind is developed, two factors are developed: right mindfulness and right concentration; when wisdom is developed, two factors are developed: right view and right thought.’²⁹⁰ {384}

Note that the terms bhāvanā and bhāvita can also be translated as cultivation / (fully) cultivated or training / (fully) trained. The scriptures use the term vaḍḍhanā as a synonym for these terms, for example: bhāvita-kāyoti vaḍḍhita-kāyo²⁹¹ and bhāvita-sīloti vaḍḍhita-sīlo.²⁹²

Most of the commentarial explanations conform with the Nettipakaraṇa, which seem to be at odds with the Peṭakopadesa. Take for example a passage from the commentaries of the Nettipakaraṇa itself: ’With the fulfilment of excellent moral conduct (abhisamācārika-sīla), one is developed in body (bhāvita-kāya); with the fulfilment of moral conduct fundamental to the holy life (ādibrahmacariyaka-sīla), one is developed in virtue (bhāvita-sīla). Moreover, by way of sense restraint (indriya-saṁvara) one is developed in the body (of the five doorways) – bhāvita-(pañcadvāra)-kāya; by way of other forms of moral conduct one is developed in virtue.’²⁹³

The commentaries to the Aṅguttara Nikāya offer a similar yet distinctive explanation: ’By way of physical development (kāya-bhāvanā), that is, by contemplation of the body (kāyānupassanā), one is called developed in body (bhāvita-kāya)…. Moreover, by developing the five doorways (pañcadvāra) one is developed in body. The term ’developed in body’ refers here to virtue as sense restraint (indriyasaṁvara-sīla); the term ’developed in moral conduct’ (bhāvita-sīla) refers to the three remaining kinds of virtue.’²⁹⁴ Other commentaries and sub-commentaries contain infrequent explanations of the terms bhāvanā and bhāvita. For example, the commentaries to the Saṁyutta Nikāya states: ’The term bhāvita-kāya refers to the body endowed with the five doorways.’²⁹⁵ This passage is consistent with the two commentarial passages cited above.

Furthermore, some commentarial and sub-commentarial passages emphasize that the term bhāvanā in the context of the four kinds of development does not refer to spiritual practice currently engaged in – to practice applied in order to reach the goal – but rather to the practice of arahants which is completed or has already reached the goal. For example: ’It is development by the fact of having been developed.’²⁹⁶

Appendix 3: Learned Ones (sutavant), Noble Disciples (ariya-sāvaka), and Noble Dhamma (ariya-dhamma)

{913} The expression ’learned noble disciple’ (sutavant or sutavā ariyasāvaka) is always paired with the expression ’untaught ordinary person’ (assutavā puthujjana), which is explained as: An untaught ordinary person, who has not seen the noble ones and is unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma, who has not seen true men, and is unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma. The commentaries explain ’untaught ordinary person’ as a ’blind’ or ’foolish’ person (andha-puthujjana or andhabāla-puthujjana). The expression ’has not seen the noble ones’ means that a person has not regularly sought out and visited the noble ones, and even if he has met them he does not know how to derive benefit from this meeting. ’Seen’ here means seeing with wisdom, not merely seeing with the physical eye.

In the Pali Canon the term ’noble Dhamma’ (ariya-dhamma) can refer to the ten wholesome courses of action (kusala-kammapatha),²⁹⁷ to the ten qualities of an adept (asekha-dhamma; also known as the ten right states – sammatta: the Eightfold Path plus right knowledge – sammā-ñāṇa – and right liberation – sammā-vimutti),²⁹⁸ or simply to the five precepts.²⁹⁹ The commentaries explaining these canonical references give a broad definition to ariya-dhamma, as meaning ’various spiritual qualities’, for example the Foundations of Mindfulness (satipaṭṭhāna).

Regarding the term ariya (or ariya-puggala), these commentaries say that it usually refers to the Buddha, Pacceka-Buddhas, and Buddhist disciples, but where ariya is paired with sappurisa (’true men’) it refers solely to the Buddha, while sappurisa (or sappurisa-jana) refers to Pacceka-Buddhas and Buddhist disciples.³⁰⁰

Appendix 4: Incentives for Giving

There are several occasions when the Buddha discussed the incentives for people to offer gifts:

The sutta of the first group finishes with a description of the states of existence where donors with these various motivations will be reborn, but this description accords with the natural consequences of these actions. The states of rebirth are not necessarily connected to the wishes of the donor. {914}

Appendix 5: Additional Scriptural Quotations

Factors of Stream-entry – Abandoned Qualities

Appendix 6: List of Foremost Disciples

This list of foremost disciples includes only the bhikkhus (there are separate lists for bhikkhunis, laymen, and laywomen); here the names of the monks are mentioned along with the prominent quality attributed to them:

• Aññākoṇḍañña (having gone forth for a long time and having experienced the events of the Buddha’s life from the beginning – rattaññū);

• Sāriputta (great wisdom);

• Mahā Moggallāna (psychic powers);

• Mahā Kassapa (ascetic practices – dhutaṅga);

• Anuruddha (the ’divine eye’ – dibba-cakkhu);

• Bhaddiya (those born in a high family);

• Lakuṇṭakabhaddiya (melodious voice);

• Piṇḍolabhāradvāja (uttering the ’lion’s roar’ – sīhanāda);

• Puṇṇa-Mantānīputta (speaking the Dhamma);

• Mahākaccāyana (elucidating brief teachings into detail);

• Cullapanthaka (creating a ’psychically formed body’ – manomaya kāya);

• Cullapanthaka (competent in ’turning away’ from saṁsāra by way of the citta: ceto-vivaṭṭa);

• Mahāpanthaka (competent in ’turning away’ from saṁsāra through wisdom: paññā-vivaṭṭa);

• Subhūti (living remote and in peace: araṇavihārī);

• Subhūti (worthy of offerings);

• Revata Khadiravaniya (living in the forest);

• Kaṅkhārevata (adept at jhāna);

• Soṇa-Kolivisa (resolute energy);

• Soṇa-Kuṭikaṇṇa (beautiful speech);

• Sīvalī (receiving gifts);

• Vakkali (liberated by faith);

• Rāhula (love of training);

• Raṭṭhapāla (ordaining out of faith);

• Kuṇḍadhāna (receiving meal invitations);

• Vaṅgīsa (perspicacity);

• Upasena Vaṅgantaputta (inspiring confidence);

• Dabba-Mallaputta (appointing lodgings);

• Pilindavaccha (adored by devas);

• Bāhiya Dārucīriya (enlightened quickly);

• Kumārakassapa (varied and versatile discourse);

• Mahākoṭṭhita (analytic insight);

• Ānanda (erudite);

• Ānanda (mindful; superb memory);

• Ānanda (’exemplary conduct’: gati);

• Ānanda (steadfast);

• Ānanda (as an attendant);

• Uruvelakassapa (with a large following);

• Kāḷudāyī (inspiring families);

• Baggula (with minimal illness);

• Sobhita (remembering past lives);

• Upāli (mastering the Vinaya);

• Nandaka (instructing the bhikkhunis);

• Nanda (guarding the sense doors);

• Mahākappina (instructing the bhikkhus);

• Sāgata (adept in the fire element);

• Rādha (nurturing discernment);

• Mogharāja (wearing a coarse robe).

Appendix 7: Seven Noble Beings

For comparison, a varying explanation of the seven noble beings is as follows: note that several terms in this sutta are inconsistent in various editions of the Tipiṭaka (e.g. between the Thai and Roman editions).³¹²

1. Saddhānusārī: a person who does not contact with the body and abide in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial (arūpa-samāpatti), but some of the taints (āsava) are destroyed through seeing the noble truths with wisdom. He has adequate faith in and love for the Tathāgata. Furthermore, he has these faculties: faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom.

2. Dhammānusārī: a person who does not contact with the body and abide in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, but some of the taints are destroyed through seeing the noble truths with wisdom. He has adequately understood by wise reflection those teachings proclaimed by the Tathāgata. He has the faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom.

3. Saddhā-vimutta: a person who does not contact with the body and abide in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, but some of the taints are destroyed through seeing the noble truths with wisdom. His faith is planted, rooted and established in the Tathāgata.

4. Diṭṭhippatta: a person who does not contact with the body and abide in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, but some of the taints are destroyed through seeing the noble truths with wisdom. He has clearly understood and correctly applies with wisdom those teachings proclaimed by the Tathāgata.

5. Kāya-sakkhī: a person who contacts with the body and abides in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, and some of the taints are destroyed through seeing the noble truths with wisdom.

6. Paññā-vimutta: a person who does not contact with the body and abide in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, but all of the taints are destroyed through seeing the noble truths with wisdom.

7. Ubhatobhāga-vimutta: a person who contacts with the body and abides in those liberations that are peaceful and immaterial, and has destroyed all of the taints through seeing the noble truths with wisdom.