Wise Reflection

Forerunners of the Middle Way
Initial Stage of Practice 2:
Yoniso-manasikāra

The Role of Reflection in a Wholesome Way of Life

For people to find true happiness they must live their lives correctly and relate to things properly, including their own personal lives, their society, technology, and their natural environment. Those people who live their lives correctly experience a personal happiness inherently conducive to the happiness of others.

The expression to live one’s life correctly, or to relate to all things properly, is a general or undetailed reference to spiritual practice. For a clearer description one must separate and distinguish correct practice into various minor activities, and examine many aspects of a person’s life. It is useful therefore to describe the different parts of spiritual practice, which together comprise the entirety of living one’s life correctly. Hereby, one defines the subtleties of living correctly, revealing the different aspects of proper practice.

From one perspective, to live one’s life is to struggle for survival, to try and escape from oppressive and obstructive forces, and to discover wellbeing. In brief, this aspect to life is the solving of problems or the ending of suffering. Those people who are able to solve and escape from problems correctly reach true success in life and live free from suffering. Therefore, to live correctly and with success can be defined as an ability to solve problems.

From another perspective, to live one’s life is to engage in various activities, manifesting as different forms of physical and verbal behaviour. When such activity is not expressed outwardly, then it manifests internally, as mental behaviour. This refers to acts of body, speech and mind, which are technically referred to as volitional physical actions (kāya-kamma), verbal actions (vacī-kamma), and mental actions (mano-kamma). Collectively, they are referred to as kamma by way of the three ’doorways’ (dvāra).

From this perspective life consists of engaging in these three kinds of actions. Those people who perform these three actions correctly live their lives well. Therefore, to live correctly and with success can be defined as knowing how to act, speak, and think – to be skilled at performing physical actions (including one’s work and profession), speaking (or communication in general), and thinking. {608}

From yet another perspective, an analysis of human life reveals that it consists of various forms of cognition, of experiencing objects of awareness or sense stimuli, which are collectively referred to as ’sense objects’ (ārammaṇa). These sense impressions pass through or manifest by way of the six sense bases (āyatana): the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. The receiving of these sense impressions consists of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, contacting tactile impressions, and cognizing mind objects: i.e, to see, to hear, to smell, to taste, to feel physical feelings, and to think.

The response and attitudes of people in regard to cognition of these sense stimuli have a crucial bearing on their lives, conduct, and fortune. If they respond to sense impressions solely with delight and aversion, with likes and dislikes, the chain of distress is set in motion. If they respond in the manner of recording information, however, and see things according to the truth – see things according to cause and effect – they will go in the direction of wisdom and towards a true solution to problems.

A factor that is no less vital than the response and attitudes towards sense impressions is the ability to select sense objects. For example, one may incline towards and choose to listen to and watch those things which gratify desire, or one may choose to listen to and observe those things that support wisdom and enhance the quality of the mind.

From this perspective to live correctly and successfully can be defined as knowing how to receive and select sense impressions – to be skilled at seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, contacting tactile objects, and thinking.

There is one more perspective to take into consideration. One way to describe human life is to highlight the engagement and relationship to phenomena in order to derive benefit from these things.

For most people the consumption or enjoyment of sense pleasures plays a very significant role. When engaging with people or things in their surroundings, whether this be their society or the natural environment, most people seek to derive some kind of benefit or advantage from them in order to satisfy their wishes or to gratify their desires. In other words, when they wish to satisfy desires they go out and engage with these people and things.

The preceding factor – of looking at life as a process of cognition – contains two aspects: that of pure cognition, say of seeing and hearing, and that of engagement, say of looking and listening. The skill of receiving and selecting sense impressions (e.g. a skill at seeing or hearing) is related to this factor of engagement.

To engage with or to consume things properly is a vital factor in determining and shaping a person’s life and degree of happiness. Therefore, to live correctly and successfully can be defined as being skilled in engaging with and relating to things. In the context of society this refers to knowing how to relate and associate with other people. In the context of material things and the natural environment this refers to knowing how to use and consume things properly.

In sum, a correct and successful way of life encompasses several subsidiary forms of behaviour and consists of various aspects, notably:

• From the perspective of escaping from problems, one is skilled at solving them.

• From the perspective of performing actions, one is skilled at thinking, speaking (or communicating), and performing physical deeds.

• From the perspective of receiving sense impressions, one is skilled at seeing, listening, smelling, tasting, contacting tactile impressions, and thinking.

• From the perspective of engagement or consumption, one is skilled at using and consuming things, and at relating to other people. {609}

To practise these various aspects of life properly is referred to as ’living one’s life correctly’, ’knowing how to live’, or ’being skilled at conducting one’s life’. According to Buddha-Dhamma, a life lived in such a manner is considered a virtuous life.

These various aspects of life, or aspects of spiritual practice, can be summed up by the phrase: ’knowing how to think’ or ’being skilled at reflection’. They all involve the process of thinking, which is a vital factor for living one’s life correctly. Thinking plays an important role on many levels, including:

• In the context of cognition, thinking is the meeting point, where various information and data gathers and assembles. It is where data is analyzed, shaped, and applied.

• In the context of volitional actions, thinking is the starting point, which leads to outward verbal and physical expressions – to speech and physical action. Moreover, it is the command centre, which determines or controls speech and physical deeds, according to one’s thoughts.

• In the relationship between these two forms of behaviour, thinking is the centre point – it is the link between cognition and volitional actions. When one experiences things by way of the sense bases, and then gathers, processes, and analyzes this sense data, thinking dictates the consequent outward expressions of speech and physical actions.

In sum, correct thinking or the skill of reflection is the seat of administration in regard to correct living in its entirety. It is the leader, guide and director for all other aspects of right practice. When one is able to think correctly, one is also able to speak correctly, act correctly, and solve problems correctly. One is skilled at seeing, hearing, eating, using material things, consuming things, and associating with others – one is skilled at living. A skill in thinking and reflection leads to a virtuous life.

A decisive factor determining a person’s skill in regard to volitional action is spiritual balance. Generally speaking, in this context the terms ’skill’ and ’balance’ have the same meaning. To act skilfully is to act in a correct, even way, giving rise to desired results according to one’s intentions and objectives. One acts in a way that is accurate, coherent, direct, and consistent, enabling one to reach one’s goal in the most optimum way, without creating any kinds of harm or faults.

In the context of reaching one’s goal, the Buddhist teachings give great emphasis to the characteristics of faultlessness, freedom from affliction, and suitability, the meanings of which are encompassed in the word ’spiritual balance’. Thus the term ’skill in conducting one’s life’ can be defined as ’living a balanced life’: to live with moderation and in a suitable way in order to attain the goal of life in a truly blameless and joyful manner.

The technical term for a life of balance, for suitable practice, or for a virtuous life is the ’middle way’ (majjhimā-paṭipadā), which refers to the Path (magga): the Noble Eightfold Path. The Middle Way is the virtuous, sublime life, free from harm and affliction, leading to utter safety and complete happiness.

Buddha-Dhamma teaches that in order to live correctly or to lead a virtuous life one must pass through a process of spiritual training and study. One can say that the Path arises as a result of spiritual training. Just as skilful reflection is the guiding principle of a virtuous life or of the Path, so too, cultivating one’s skills in the area of thinking is the leading factor in formal spiritual training (sikkhā). {610}

Within the process of spiritual training, developing a skill in reflection leads to correct understanding, correct ideas, and even correct beliefs, which are collectively referred to as ’right view’ (sammā-diṭṭhi), which is the mainstay of a virtuous life in its entirety. The cultivation of right view is the gist of wisdom development, which is at the heart of spiritual training.

A skill in reflection involves many methods of thinking and analysis. Developing such skill in reflection is a unique form of spiritual training and cultivation.

The Role of Reflection in Spiritual Training and Wisdom Development

Before discussing the various methods of thinking, let us review the role of thinking in spiritual training, especially in the area of wisdom development, which is the core of such training.

Commencement of Training

The essence of spiritual training is self-development, with wisdom development at its core. The key elements of such training are correct understanding, opinions, ways of thinking, attitudes, and values, which benefit one’s life and society and conform to truth. In short, this refers to ’right view’ (sammā-diṭṭhi).

When one understands things correctly, one’s thoughts, speech, and physical actions – that is, all of one’s actions – will be correct, virtuous, and beneficial, leading to the end of suffering.

Conversely, if one has incorrect understanding, values, attitudes, and ways of thinking – collectively referred to as ’wrong view’ (micchā-diṭṭhi) – all of one’s actions, including one’s thoughts, speech, and physical actions, will also be incorrect. Instead of solving problems and ending suffering, one will create more suffering, accumulate problems, and increase trouble.

Right view can be separated into two levels:

• First, those kinds of views, thoughts, opinions, beliefs, preferences, and values which are connected to an awareness of one’s actions and the effects of such actions, or which foster a sense of personal accountability. One sees things correctly in the light of Dhamma teachings. The precise term for this kind of view is ’knowledge of being an owner of one’s deeds’ (kammassakatā-ñāṇa). It is mundane right view (lokiya-sammādiṭṭhi) and pertains to the level of moral conduct.

• Second, those views and ways of thinking which help to discern how all conditioned things exist in accord with the law of causality. It is an understanding of things according to how they really are. One is not biased by preferences and aversions or swayed by how one wants things to be or not be. It is a knowledge in harmony with natural truth and is technically referred to as ’knowledge consistent with truth’ (saccānulomika-ñāṇa). It is right view aligned with transcendent understanding and pertains to the level of absolute truth.

Likewise, there are two kinds of wrong view (micchā-diṭṭhi): those views, notions, and values which deny a sense of personal accountability – a refusal to admit one’s own responsibility; and an ignorance of the world as it really is – the formation of deluded images according to how one personally wants the world to be. {611}

In any case, the internal spiritual training of an individual begins with and continues as a result of an engagement with his or her external environment; it is dependent on external influences which act as a source of motivation or as conditioning factors. If one receives teachings, advice, and transmissions from correct sources, or if one is able to select, discern, contemplate and engage with things properly, right view (sammā-diṭṭhi) will arise and true training will ensue.

Conversely, if one receives incorrect teachings, advice and transmissions, or if one in unable to reflect on, consider, and gain insight into one’s experiences, wrong view (micchā-diṭṭhi) will arise and one will train incorrectly or not train at all.

To review, there are two basic sources of spiritual training, which are called the ’prerequisites of right view’:

1. The external factor of the instruction of others (paratoghosa): the words or utterance of others. This refers to social influences and transmissions, for example from parents, teachers, friends, associates, books, the media, and one’s culture. These outside influences provide correct information and teachings and they encourage one to go in a wholesome direction.

2. The internal factor of wise reflection (yoniso-manasikāra): to be skilled at reflection; to apply proper methods of thinking and reasoning.

Similarly, there are two sources to wrong training or to a lack of spiritual training, which are the prerequisites of wrong view: incorrect, unwholesome instruction by others and an absence of wise reflection – an inability to reflect wisely.

Process of Training

As mentioned above, the essence of spiritual training is right view. When right view is firmly established, spiritual training proceeds effectively.

This process is divided into three major stages, which collectively are referred to as the three trainings or the threefold training:

1. Training in higher virtue (adhisīla-sikkhā): training in the area of conduct, moral discipline, and uprightness in physical actions, speech, and livelihood. It can be simply referred to as ’virtue’ (sīla).

2. Training in higher mind (adhicitta-sikkhā): the training of the mind, the cultivation of spiritual qualities, and the development of mental strength, mental aptitude, and mental health. It can be simply referred to as ’concentration’ or ’mental collectedness’ (samādhi).

3. Training in higher wisdom (adhipaññā-sikkhā): the development of wisdom, giving rise to a knowledge of things as they truly are, a discernment of the causal nature of things, which enables one to solve problems in line with cause and effect; a thorough understanding of phenomena, to the extent that one is able to liberate the mind from all clinging and attachment, eliminate mental defilement, and bring an end to suffering – to live with a mind that is free, pure, joyous and bright. It can be simply referred to as ’wisdom’ (paññā).

The formulation of these three trainings is directly connected to the teaching referred to as the Noble Path (ariya-magga): the ’supreme way’, the ’noble method for solving problems belonging to the noble ones’, or the ’path leading to the cessation of suffering and to the state of awakening’.

The Noble Path contains eight essential factors or eight aspects of practice:

1. Right view (sammā-diṭṭhi): correct views, ideas, opinions, beliefs, attitudes and values; to see things according to causes and conditions; to see things in harmony with truth or with reality. {612}

2. Right thought (sammā-saṅkappa): thoughts, considerations, and motives which do not harm oneself or others, are not corrupted by defilement, and are conducive to wellbeing and happiness, for example: thoughts of renunciation, well-wishing, kindness, and benefaction; pure, truthful and righteous thoughts; thoughts free from selfishness, covetousness, anger, hatred, and malice.

3. Right speech (sammā-vācā): honest and upright speech; speech that is not abusive, deceitful, divisive, slanderous, coarse, trivial, or pointless; speech that is polite and gentle, promoting friendship and harmony; rational, beneficial speech.

4. Right action (sammā-kammanta): righteous, beneficial actions; non-oppressive, non-harmful actions; actions that build good relationships, promote cooperation, and lead to a peaceful society. Specifically, this refers to actions that are not involved in or contributive to killing or physical injury, to violating the belongings of others, or to violating the rights of others in regard to their spouse or cherished items and people.

5. Right livelihood (sammā-ājīva): earning a living in righteous ways, which do not cause trouble or harm to others.

6. Right effort (sammā-vāyāma): righteous effort, that is: to strive to prevent and avoid unarisen evil, unwholesome qualities; to strive to abandon and eliminate arisen evil, unwholesome qualities; to strive to establish and foster unarisen wholesome qualities; and to strive to cultivate, increase, and perfect arisen wholesome qualities.

7. Right mindfulness (sammā-sati): to be vigilant and attentive; to sustain attention on whichever necessary task one faces in the moment; to be circumspect about one’s activities; to recollect those virtuous, supportive, or required factors connected to a specific activity; to not be absentminded, careless, or negligent. Most notably, this refers to mindfulness fully attentive to one’s own physical activities, feelings, state of mind, and thoughts. One does not allow alluring or annoying sense impressions to lead one astray or to cause confusion.

8. Right concentration (sammā-samādhi): firmly established attention; the mind is focused on an activity or on an object of attention (ārammaṇa); the mind is one-pointed, calm, relaxed, pure, bright, and strong; it is malleable and engaged, ready for the effective application of wisdom; it is not distracted, disturbed, confused, stressed, rigid, or despondent.

The threefold training is designed to bear fruit according to the principles of practice inherent in the Noble Eightfold Path. This training generates and develops the eight Path factors. A Dhamma practitioner makes full use of these Path factors and gradually solves problems until he or she reaches the complete end of suffering. The relationship between the threefold training and the Eightfold Path is as follows:

1. Training in higher virtue: aspects of training giving rise to right speech, right action, and right livelihood. These three Path factors are cultivated to the point where one reaches the standard of a noble being in regard to moral conduct, discipline, and skilful social interaction. This is the basis for developing the power of mind.

2. Training in higher mind: aspects of training giving rise to right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. These three Path factors are cultivated to the point where one reaches the standard of a noble being in regard to spiritual qualities, power of mind, mental capability, and mental health. This is the basis for developing wisdom. {613}

3. Training in higher wisdom: aspects of training giving rise to right view and right thought. These two Path factors are cultivated to the point where one reaches the standard of a noble being in regard to wisdom. One’s mind is bright, joyous, and freed from all forms of grasping and affliction; one reaches true deliverance of mind by way of wisdom.

As mentioned above, right view – the mainstay of spiritual training – arises dependent on two factors (the prerequisites of right view), which are the source, origin and starting point of practice. Therefore, in the activities pertaining to spiritual training special emphasis should be given to these two factors. Indeed, the expression ’providing training’ relates precisely to these two factors. As for the three stages of training – sīla, samādhi, and paññā – they are used simply as reference points for creating a supportive environment and for ensuring that the direction of practice proceeds according to proper principles.

Based on this understanding one is able to outline spiritual training as shown on Figure Outline of Spiritual Training.

Basic Elements of Spiritual Training

From the above section we see that thinking or reflection comprises one of the two initial factors or sources of spiritual training. To gain a clear understanding of the vital role of thought, however, it should be explained in conjunction with the second factor, of the teachings by others:

These two prerequisites of right view can also be called the forerunners to spiritual training. They are the wellspring of right view, which is the starting point and key principle of spiritual practice in its entirety. Let us review these factors in more depth:

1. The words of others (paratoghosa): external motivation and influence; teachings, advice, instruction, transmission, schooling, proclamations, information, and news coming from external sources. This also includes imitating or emulating others’ behaviour and ideas. It is an external or social factor.

   Examples of such sources of learning include: one’s parents, teachers, mentors, friends, companions, co-workers, bosses, and employees; famous and esteemed people; books, other forms of media, and religious and cultural institutions. In this context, it refers specifically to those external influences leading one in a correct, wholesome direction and providing correct knowledge, and in particular those enabling one to attain the second factor of wise reflection.

   A person with suitable attributes and qualities, who is able to perform the function of instruction well, is called a virtuous friend (kalyāṇamitta). Generally speaking, for a virtuous friend to act effectively and succeed in instructing others, he or she must be able to instil confidence in the student or practitioner, and therefore the method of learning here is referred to as the ’way of faith’.

   If the persons offering instruction, for example parents or teachers, are unable to establish a sense of trust in the pupil (or child, as the case may be), who subsequently develops greater interest and trust in another source of information and thinking, say in the words of a movie star transmitted via the media, and if this alternative information is bad or wrong, the process of learning or training is beset by danger. The end result may be a wrong form of learning or an absence of true learning.

2. Wise reflection (yoniso-manasikāra); skilful modes of thinking; systematic thinking; the ability to contemplate and discern things according to how they truly exist, for example the recognition that a specific phenomenon ’exist just so’. One searches for causes and conditions, inquires into the source of things, traces the complete sequence of events, and analyzes things in order to see things as they are and as conforming to the law of causality. One does not attach to or distort things out of personal craving and clinging. Wise reflection leads to wellbeing and an ability to solve problems. This is an internal, spiritual factor and may be referred to as the ’way of wisdom’.

Of these two factors, wise reflection is essential and indispensable. Spiritual training truly bears fruit and its goal is reached as a result of wise reflection. Indeed, it is possible for wise reflection to initiate spiritual training without the assistance of external influences. If one relies on the first factor of external instruction, it must lead to wise reflection for one’s training to reach completion. Intuition, insight, and the discovery and realization of truth is accomplished by way of wise reflection. {615}

Having said this, one should not underestimate the power of the first factor, of the instruction by others, because only a minute number of individuals do not need to rely on this factor – those who can progress solely by the application of wise reflection. These individuals, like the Buddha, are exceptional. Almost everyone in the world relies on the instruction by others to help show the way.

All forms of formal and systematic education, both in the past and in the present, and all forms of schooling in the field of the arts and sciences are matters pertaining to this factor of the ’words of others’ (paratoghosa). The wholesome transmission of knowledge by way of virtuous friends thus deserves the utmost care and attention.

A point that needs to be reiterated here is that in providing an education or skilful instruction, a virtuous friend needs to constantly keep in mind that this instruction must act as a catalyst for the arising of wise reflection in the students.

Thinking Conducive to Spiritual Training

Thinking is linked to and follows cognition. The process of cognition begins at the point where a sense base (āyatana) encounters a sense object (ārammaṇa). At this point consciousness arises (viññāṇa) – the awareness of a sense object – for example seeing a form, hearing a sound, or knowing a mental object. When this process is complete it is called ’cognition’, or literally, according to the Pali, as ’contact’ (phassa).

With cognition there arises some form of sensation (vedanā), say of pleasure and ease, suffering and discomfort, or a neutral feeling.² At the same time, there arises perception (saññā) – the naming, designation, or recognition of the sense object. From here there follows thinking (vitakka) – thoughts, reflections and deliberations.

This process of cognition is the same, regardless of whether one encounters and experiences something externally, or whether one thinks of something and contemplates it in the mind.

Using the act of seeing as an example, this process can be illustrated as follows (similar to earlier at Figure The Cognitive Process (Simple Form) in Chapter 2. Six Senses).

Eye (āyatana) +
physical form (ārammaṇa) +
seeing (cakkhu-viññāṇa) =
contact (phassa) →
sensation (vedanā) →
perception (saññā) →
thinking (vitakka)

The act of thinking plays a very important role in determining a person’s personality and way of life, as well as shaping society as a whole. Thinking, therefore, is an essential factor in spiritual training. Thinking, however, is itself determined by various factors and conditions.

One factor which exerts a powerful influence on thinking is sensation (vedanā), in particular the feelings of pleasure and pain.

Ordinarily, when people contact sense impressions and experience feelings, unless other factors enter to correct or intercept the process, these feelings determine the way a person thinks:

• If the feelings are pleasurable or comforting one delights in them; one wishes to acquire or consume the object (this is craving – taṇhā – in an affirmative sense).

• If the feelings are painful or oppressive one is averse to them; one wishes to escape from or eliminate the object (this is craving in an adversative sense). {616}

At this point a person creates elaborate thoughts and ideas about the sense object acting as the source of that feeling. The object becomes the focus of a person’s thinking, accompanied by saññā – memories and perceptions of this object. These proliferations of thought follow the course of the person’s likes and aversions. The determining factors for thought are a person’s accumulated proclivities, prejudices, habits, disposition, and mental defilements (collectively referred to as mental formations – saṅkhāra). He or she thinks within the confines and limitations and along the line of these mental formations. Expressions of speech and physical actions may then follow in the wake of these thoughts.

Even if these thoughts are not expressed as outward actions, they still have an impact on a person’s mind. They limit and constrict the mind and create various forms of mental distress, agitation, disturbance, depression, and confusion. Thoughts related to specific subjects can create mental bias and distortion, resulting in a failure to see things according to the truth, while some thoughts may be tainted by greed or hostility.

In the case that one experiences neutral sensations – neither pleasurable nor painful – if one is not skilled at reflection and allows oneself to remain under their influence, one’s thinking will be aimless and incoherent or completely stifled. This is an unfavourable and unwholesome situation, leading to problems and greater suffering.

The main factors of this process can be illustrated thus:

Contact (phassa) →
sensation (vedanā) →
craving, both affirmative and adversative (taṇhā) →
suffering (dukkha)

For most people this process of compounding problems occurs almost continually. In a single day it may occur repeatedly and countlessly. The life of a person lacking spiritual training tends to be dominated and determined by this way of thinking. It requires no intelligence, understanding, or special capability. It is the most basic way in which a human being operates. And the more a person has accumulated the habit of thinking in this way, the easier this process unfolds automatically, as if stuck in a pre-established rut.

Because this process functions without any guidance by mindfulness and wisdom, it generates ignorance (avijjā). Rather than being conducive to solving problems, it creates more problems and increases suffering. It is antithetical to spiritual training. Technically, it is thus referred to as the ’mode of conditionality leading to suffering’.

The basic attribute of this way of thinking is that it serves to gratify craving. In sum it can be referred to as the ’process of thinking that panders to craving’, ’thinking that causes problems’, or simply as the ’cycle of suffering’.

The beginning of spiritual training begins with the application of mindfulness and wisdom. Here, a person no longer allows this aforementioned process of thinking or mode of conditionality to function unabated and unchecked. One uses mindfulness, wisdom, and other spiritual factors to interrupt or reduce the flow of this way of thinking, resulting in a severance of the cycle or a transformation and altered course of thinking. One begins to be liberated – to no longer be enslaved by this process of thinking. {617}

At first, an altered course of thinking may result from views or traditional ways of thinking transmitted by external sources, say by other people or social institutions, to which one adheres out of faith. Generally speaking the most such external instruction can do is to deter or restrain one from blindly following a course of thinking pandering to craving, or perhaps it can provide one with an alternative fixed pattern of thinking. But it does not necessarily lead to a progressive, independent way of thinking. If the instruction is exceptional, however, it can generate the kind of faith that leads people to think for themselves.

An example of instruction that leads to a strictly prescribed, unyielding form of faith, and is not a vehicle for further contemplation, is to have others believe that everything in the world is governed and controlled by some divine being or occurs randomly or by accident. If one believes in such teachings, all one has to do is wait for the will of God or leave everything up to fate. One need not investigate or reflect on things.

Conversely, an example of instruction that generates a kind of faith leading to contemplation is to have others believe that all things exist according causes and conditions. If one believes this then no matter what happens one will investigate and probe into the underlying causes and conditions, and one will develop an increased knowledge and understanding.

Wholesome thinking and contemplation induced by a faith in external instruction begins with wise reflection (yoniso-manasikāra). In other words, skilful instruction generates a faith leading to wise reflection.

With the arising of wise reflection, spiritual training has begun. From this point a person applies and develops wisdom, which helps to solve problems and is the path to the cessation of suffering. In a nutshell, thinking that supports and promotes wisdom is spiritual training.

Wise reflection plays an especially important role by preventing feeling (vedanā) from producing craving (taṇhā). When one applies wise reflection, one experiences feeling but without it leading to craving. And when there is no craving, one does not create fanciful ideas (’mental proliferation’) subject to the power of craving.

When one severs thinking processes pandering to craving, skilful, systematic reflection leads to the path of wisdom development and to the end of suffering. The two kinds of thinking can be illustrated as shown on Figure Two Kinds of Thinking.

In any case, for ordinary people, even if they have begun a spiritual training, these two ways of thinking arise alternately, and one way of thinking may interfere with the other. For example, the first process may unfold until it reaches craving, but then wise reflection steps in to cut off the process and steer it in a new direction. Or the latter process may reach the stage of wisdom, yet craving in a new guise hijacks the process. It can thus occur that the fruits of wisdom are corrupted to serve the interests of craving. {618}

When those persons who have completed spiritual training think, they apply analytical reflection (yoniso-manasikāra). When they are not thinking they abide mindfully in the present moment, that is, they are attentive to those activities in which they are engaged.

To say that one applies analytical reflection when one thinks also implies that one applies mindfulness (sati), because wise reflection is a source of nourishment for mindfulness. When thinking proceeds in a systematic, purposeful way, attention does not stray or drift aimlessly. Mindfulness then functions to keep attention on the tasks at hand.

Analytical reflection is thus a key factor in spiritual training, connected to the essential stage of wisdom development. It is required for living a virtuous life, helping to solve problems and acting as a refuge for people.

In the gradual process of wisdom development, wise reflection is part of a stage beyond faith, because at this stage a person begins to think independently from others.

Within the system of spiritual training, wise reflection is an internal factor, connected to the development and application of thought. It can be defined as a proper method of thinking, methodical thinking, or analytical thinking, and it has the following attributes: it prevents one from looking at things superficially; it leads to self-reliance; and it leads to liberation, freedom from suffering, true peace, and pure wisdom, which are the highest goals of Buddhism.

The preceding material has presented a general introduction to the two initial factors of spiritual training: the utterances of others (paratoghosa), which can also be described as having a virtuous friend (kalyāṇamitta), which is an external factor and a matter dealing with faith; and wise reflection (yoniso-manasikāra), which is an internal factor and a matter dealing with wisdom.

From here on in this chapter the focus will be solely on wise reflection, to elucidate the methods of thinking distinctive to Buddha-Dhamma. {619}

Importance of Wise Reflection

Definition of Wise Reflection

The compound term yoniso-manasikāra is made up of the two words yoniso and manasikāra.

Yoniso is derived from the word yoni (’origin’, ’place of birth’, ’womb’) and is variously translated as ’cause’, ’root’, ’source’, ’wisdom’, ’method’, ’means’, or ’path’. (See Note Yoniso: A Means and a Path)

Manasikāra is translated as ’mental activity’, ’thinking’, ’consideration’, ’reflection’, ’directing attention’, or ’contemplation’. (See Note Synonyms of Manasikāra)

As a compound the term yoniso-manasikāra is traditionally defined as ’skilfully directing attention’. The commentaries and sub-commentaries elaborate on this definition and explain the nuances of this term by presenting various synonyms, as follows:⁵

1. Upāya-manasikāra: ’methodical reflection’; to think or reflect by using proper means or methods; systematic thinking. This refers to methodical thinking that enables one to realize and exist in harmony with the truth, and to penetrate the nature and characteristics of all phenomena. {622}

2. Patha-manasikāra: ’suitable reflection’; to think following a distinct course or in a proper way; to think sequentially and in order; to think systematically. This refers to thinking in a well-organized way, e.g. in line with cause and effect; to not think in a confused, disorderly way; to not at one moment be preoccupied by one thing and then in the next moment jump to something else, unable to sustain a precise, well-defined sequence of thought. This factor also includes the ability to guide thinking in a correct direction.

3. Kāraṇa-manasikāra: ’reasoned thinking’; analytical thinking; investigative thinking; rational thinking. This refers to inquiry into the relationship and sequence of causes and conditions; to contemplate and search for the original causes of things, in order to arrive at their root or source, which has resulted in a gradual chain of events.

4. Uppādaka-manasikāra: ’effective thinking’; to apply thinking in a purposeful way, in order to yield desired results. This refers to thinking and reflection that generates wholesome qualities, e.g.: thoughts that rouse effort; an ability to think in a way that dispels fear and anger; and contemplations which support mindfulness or which strengthen and stabilize the mind.

These four definitions describe various attributes of the kind of thought referred to as ’wise reflection’ (yoniso-manasikāra). At any one time, wise reflection may contain all or some of these attributes. These four definitions may be summarized in brief as ’methodical thinking’, ’systematic thinking’, ’analytical thinking’, or ’thinking inducing wholesomeness’. It is challenging, however, to come up with a single definition or translation for yoniso-manasikāra. Most translations will only capture limited nuances of this term and are not comprehensive. The alternative is to give a lengthy definition, as presented above.

The difficulty of translating this term notwithstanding, there are prominent attributes of this way of thinking which can be used to represent all the other attributes and which can be translated in brief, for example: ’methodical thinking’, ’skilful thinking’, ’analytical thinking’, and ’investigative thinking’. Once one has gained a thorough understanding of this Pali term, it is convenient to rely on a concise translation like ’wise reflection’, ’systematic reflection’, or ’careful attention’. (See Note Traslation of Yoniso Manasikāra)

Earlier, I mentioned the relationship between the internal factor of wise reflection and the external factor of instruction by others or virtuous friends. Here, let us focus more closely on how a virtuous friend, by relying on the principle of faith, can help those people who are unskilled at thinking for themselves and applying wise reflection.

In respect to the first three attributes of wise reflection described above, virtuous friends are only able to point out or throw light on specific truths, but practitioners must contemplate and gain understanding by themselves. When it comes to the stage of true understanding, faith is inadequate.⁶ In regard to these three attributes, faith is thus extremely limited. {623}

In respect to the fourth attribute (reflection generating wholesome qualities), however, faith plays a powerful role. For example, some people are weak and easily daunted or think in irrational and harmful ways. If a virtuous friend is able to establish faith in such people, this will be very helpful for them. He or she may inspire and encourage them by using skilful means. Having said this, there are some people who are naturally endowed with wise reflection and are able to think for themselves. In discouraging or distressing situations they are able to effectively motivate themselves and think of ways to address the problem.

On the contrary, if one has evil friends or applies unwise attention, despite finding oneself in good circumstances and encountering good things, one is likely to think or act in bad ways. For instance, when discovering a pleasant, secluded place, a bad person may think of it as a suitable place to commit a crime. In a similar vein, some people are highly suspicious – when they see someone else smile, they think that they are being ridiculed or insulted.

If one allows this course of thinking to proceed unimpeded, unwise attention will nourish and strengthen such unwholesome states of mind. For example, a person who habitually sees things in a negative light will begin to see others as adversaries. Similarly, a person who is habitually afraid and sees others as thinking ill of him may develop a mental disorder of paranoia.⁷

Depending on either wise reflection or unwise reflection, the same subject matter may result in very different behaviour for different people. For example, one person may think of death with improper attention and consequently experience fear, depression, apathy, or confusion. Another person may think of death with wise reflection and thus appreciate the need to abstain from unwholesome actions. He or she will be calm, heedful, and ardent, hastening to perform good deeds.⁸

In terms of insight into reality, wise reflection is not wisdom itself, but rather a condition for the arising of wisdom, that is, wise reflection generates right view. The Milindapañhā describes the difference between reflection and wisdom thus:⁹

• First, animals such as goats, sheep, cows, buffalo, camels, and donkeys possess a form of reflection (manasikāra – ’mental application’), but they do not possess wisdom (nor is their reflection ’analytical’ – yoniso).

• Second, manasikāra has the characteristic of contemplation and reflection, whereas wisdom (paññā) has the characteristic of severing. Manasikāra gathers together and submits ideas to wisdom, which is then able to eliminate mental defilement, similar to a man grasping an ear of rice by his left hand, enabling him to successfully harvest it with a sickle held in his right hand.

Based on this interpretation, yoniso-manasikāra is a kind of mental engagement (manasikāra) leading to an application and development of wisdom.¹⁰ {624}

The Papañcasūdanī states that unwise attention (ayoniso-manasikāra) is the root source of the round of rebirth (vaṭṭa), causing beings to accumulate problems and to swim around in suffering. This text also explains that, when it is allowed to prosper, unwise attention increases both ignorance (avijjā) and the craving for becoming (bhava-taṇhā). With the arising of ignorance the cycle of Dependent Origination begins, starting with ignorance acting as the condition for volitional formations (saṅkhāra), and completed with the arising of the whole mass of suffering. The beginning of the cycle of Dependent Origination can also be designated by the arising of craving (taṇhā), starting with craving acting as a condition for grasping, and similarly completed with the mass of suffering.

Conversely, wise reflection is the root cause for the cycle of ’turning away’ (vivaṭṭa), enabling one to escape from the whirlpool of suffering and to truly solve problems. With the arising of wise reflection a person begins to practise according to the Eightfold Path, with right view as the leading factor. Right view here is equivalent to true knowledge (vijjā). With the arising of true knowledge, ignorance ceases. With the end of ignorance the cessation cycle (nirodha-vāra) of Dependent Origination is set in operation, leading gradually to the cessation of suffering.¹¹ These processes can be illustrated thus:

Round of rebirth (vaṭṭa):

Unwise reflection (ayoniso-manasikāra):

Ignorance (avijjā) →
volitional formations (saṅkhāra) …
aging, death, sorrow, lamentation =
the arising of suffering.

Craving (taṇhā) →
grasping (upādāna) …
aging, death, sorrow, lamentation =
the arising of suffering.

Cycle of ’turning away’ (vivaṭṭa):

Wise reflection (yoniso-manasikāra) →
cultivation of the Path (magga-bhāvanā):
right view (sammā-diṭṭhi) =
true knowledge (vijjā) →
the cessation of ignorance →
the cessation of volitional formations …
the cessation of suffering.

The term yoniso-manasikāra has a wide range of meaning, including thinking concerned with moral issues and thinking in line with virtuous and truthful principles which one has studied and understood. Basic levels of contemplation which do not require a profound degree of wisdom include: thoughts of amicability, thoughts of lovingkindness, thoughts of generosity and assistance, and thoughts of generating inner strength, determination, and courage. Some contemplations, however, require refined and subtle degrees of wisdom, for example an analysis of subsidiary factors or an investigation into causes and conditions.

Because the meaning of wise reflection is so comprehensive, everyone is capable of applying it, especially elementary levels of contemplation. All people need to do is direct their course of thinking in a wholesome direction, corresponding to teachings they have received and ideas they have nurtured. This basic form of wise reflection helps to generate mundane right view and is greatly influenced by faith, which comes about through the words of others (paratoghosa), including one’s education, culture, and the presence of virtuous friends. Faith acts as an anchor for the mind and an internal force. When a person cognizes a sense object or encounters a particular situation, the course of his or her thinking is directed by the force of faith, as if faith has already dug a channel for thinking to go. {625}

For this reason the Buddha stated that (correct) faith is the nourishment for wise reflection.¹² External instruction from virtuous friends, which uses faith as a channel, is able to gradually increase understanding and introduce a person to new ideas, for example by way of consultation and by asking questions to clear up doubts.

When it is applied repeatedly and nourished by faith, proper reflection develops and becomes more agile, deepening wisdom. When one contemplates and sees that the teachings one has received are truly correct and beneficial, one becomes more confident and faith increases. In this way, wise reflection enhances faith.¹³ It urges people to make greater effort in their studies, until eventually their own reflections lead them to realization and deliverance.

Here, a person’s spiritual practice relies on an integration between internal and external factors. Wholesome influence from external sources is implied in the phrase: ’Be your own refuge, with no one else as your refuge.’¹⁴ The Buddha did not reject external influences. Indeed, external influences and the quality of faith are extremely important, but the key determining factor lies within, that is, wise reflection.

The more one is able to apply wise reflection, the less one relies on external factors. Similarly, if someone does not apply wise reflection at all, any amount of help from virtuous friends is in vain.

As most students of Buddhism know, mindfulness (sati) is a vital factor that is required for every activity. The problem arises, however, of how to establish mindfulness in time and, once it is established, how to sustain it in a consistent, continuous way so that it is not broken and does not slip away.

In this context, there are teachings which explain how wise reflection nourishes mindfulness, assisting the establishment and the uninterrupted flow of mindfulness.¹⁵

If one possesses systematic, coherent, and effective reflection, one is able to sustain mindfulness consistently. If one is unable to reflect properly, however, or if one’s thinking is ineffectual or aimless, mindfulness will keep slipping away and one will be unable to sustain it. It is neither correct nor possible to truly compel or constrain mindfulness. The correct course is to nourish mindfulness and to generate its supportive conditions. If these conditions are present, mindfulness arises – this is part of a natural process. One thus needs to act in accord with this process.

The function of wise reflection is to cut off ignorance and craving (or in an affirmative sense, it summons wisdom and wholesome qualities).

Generally speaking, when a person encounters a sense object, the process of thinking begins immediately. At this point two distinct forces vie with one another:

• If ignorance and craving are able to seize control of thinking, the thought process will be subject to these factors and shaped by mental formations based on likes and dislikes and on pre-established concepts and ideas.

• If wise reflection is able to bar and cut off ignorance and craving, it will lead thinking in a correct direction, resulting in a thought process free from these negative factors. The corrupted thought process is replaced by the process of knowing and seeing (ñāṇa-dassana) or of true knowledge and liberation (vijjā-vimutti). {626}

Generally speaking, when ordinary, unawakened beings encounter a sense object, their thinking follows the course of ignorance and craving. They overlay the experience with their likes and dislikes, or with their pre-established ideas. This is the point at which thoughts connected to that experience or sense object begin to be shaped and moulded by ignorance and craving, a process which occurs because of a person’s accumulated habitual tendencies.

To be influenced by ignorance and craving in one’s thinking is to see things as one wants them to be or not to be. One’s thinking is bound by personal attachments and aversions. This results in an incorrect discernment of things, in prejudices based on preferences and aversions, in misunderstanding, and in distorted conceptions. Moreover, it is a cause for confusion, listlessness, loneliness, despondency, fear, gratification and subsequent disappointment, stress, and frustration, all of which are various forms of mental affliction.

Reflecting wisely entails seeing things according to the truth or according to causal relationships, not according to ignorance and craving. In other words, one sees things according to their own nature, not according to one’s wishes and desires.

When unawakened persons experience something, their thoughts immediately align themselves with likes and dislikes. The function of wise reflection is to cut off this process and to seize the active role. It then directs the course of thinking in a pure, systematic direction, by contemplating according to causes and conditions. The result is that one understands the truth and generates wholesome states, or at the very least one responds to things in the most appropriate way.

Wise reflection allows people to make good use of thinking, to be a master of their own thoughts, to call upon thinking in order to solve problems and to live at ease. This is the opposite to unwise reflection, which allows thoughts to manipulate and enslave the mind, to drag people into difficulty, oppress them in various ways, and take away their independence. Note also that in the course of wise reflection, mindfulness and clear comprehension are constant factors inherent in the process, because wise reflection constantly nourishes these factors.

In sum, wise reflection cuts off ignorance and craving. These two negative qualities always appear in tandem, although in some cases ignorance is prominent and craving unpronounced, while at other times craving is dominant and ignorance concealed.¹⁶ Given this fact, it is possible to present two definitions for wise reflection, according to the dominant role of either ignorance or craving: wise reflection is a form of thinking that cuts off ignorance; or it is a form of thinking that cuts off craving. The distinction is as follows:

• When ignorance is dominant, thinking gets stuck on and revolves around a single theme in a confused and disconnected way. One does not know which direction to go, or else one’s thoughts are incoherent, disordered, and irrational, for example in the case of someone who is caught in fear.

• When craving is dominant, thinking inclines in the direction of likes and dislikes, preferences and aversions, or attachment and revulsion. One is preoccupied with those things one likes or dislikes, and one’s thinking is shaped in accord with pleasure and displeasure.

This distinction notwithstanding, on a profound level ignorance is the source of craving, and craving reinforces ignorance. Therefore, if one is to eliminate all affliction and unwholesomeness completely, one must go to the source and eliminate ignorance. {627}

Ways of Reflecting Wisely

The ways of reflecting wisely here refers to the practical application of yoniso-manasikāra. Although there are many methods for applying wise reflection, technically speaking they are divided into two main categories:

1. Wise reflection aiming directly at the cutting off or elimination of ignorance.

2. Wise reflection aiming at cutting off or reducing craving.

Generally speaking, the first method is necessary for the final stages of Dhamma practice, because it gives rise to an understanding according to the truth, which is a requirement for awakening. The latter method is most often used during preliminary stages of practice, with the purpose of building a foundation for virtue or of cultivating virtue, in order to be prepared for more advanced stages. This method is limited to subduing mental defilement. Many methods of applying wise reflection, however, can be used for both benefits simultaneously: for eliminating ignorance and for reducing craving.

The chief methods for applying wise reflection contained in the Pali Canon can be classified as follows:

1. The method of investigating causes and conditions.

2. The method of analyzing component factors.

3. The method of reflecting in accord with the three universal characteristics (sāmañña-lakkhaṇa).

4. The method of reflecting in accord with the Four Noble Truths (reflection used to solve problems).

5. The method of reflecting on the relationship between the goals (attha) and the principles (dhamma) of things.

6. The method of reflecting on the advantages and disadvantages of things, and on the escape from them.

7. The method of reflecting on the true and counterfeit value of things.

8. The method of reflection in order to rouse wholesome qualities.

9. The method of reflection by dwelling in the present moment.

10. The method of reflection corresponding to analytic discussion (vibhajja-vāda). {628}

Investigation of Causes and Conditions

The method of investigating causes and conditions refers to a contemplation of phenomena in order to ascertain the truth, or to a contemplation of dilemmas in order to find a solution by examining various interrelated causal factors. It can also be described as the way of thinking in line with ’specific conditionality’ (idappaccayatā) or according to the teaching on Dependent Origination (paṭiccasamuppāda). This is a fundamental form of wise reflection, and it is sometimes referred to when describing the Buddha’s awakening.

This form of reflection is not restricted to beginning at the results and then investigating the causes and conditions. In the way of thinking in line with specific conditionality it is also possible to begin with a cause and then trace its results, or to select any point in the middle of a process and then track either forwards to the end result or backwards to the source.

In the Pali Canon this form of wise reflection is described as follows:

For more on this form of wise reflection see Chapter 4 on Dependent Origination.

Analysis of Component Factors

The analysis of component factors, or the elaboration on a specific subject matter, is another form of reflection which aims to generate an understanding of things as they truly are.

This form of contemplation is most often used to recognize the true insubstantiality or selflessness of all things, in order to give up clinging to conventions and designations (sammati-paññatti). In particular, this refers to a contemplation of beings or people as existing merely as a collection of assorted aggregates (khandha), each of which exists dependent on subsidiary conditional factors. This form of reflection is conducive to seeing the ’selfless’ nature of things (anattā).

A clear discernment of the selfless nature of things, however, normally requires the simultaneous participation by the previous kind of reflection (investigative reflection) and/or the following kind of reflection (reflection in accord with the three characteristics; see below). Through careful analysis one sees how the five aggregates are interdependent and subject to related causes and conditions; they are not truly independent. Moreover, these aggregates and conditional factors all proceed according to natural laws, that is, they exist in a perpetual state of rise and decay; they are unstable, unenduring, and impermanent.

If one is unable to accurately see this rising and ceasing of phenomena – their conditionality and their oppression by various factors – by way of investigative reflection described above, which can be a difficult task, one can reflect on these attributes as universal characteristics of all things, which is encompassed in the third kind of contemplation below. In the Pali Canon this second kind of wise reflection is mentioned together with the third kind.

The commentaries, however, which are aligned with later Abhidhamma texts, prefer to distinguish this second kind of reflection, and they classify it is a mode of detailed analysis (vibhajja-vidhi).¹⁹ Furthermore, they tend to begin with a basic analysis by focusing on mentality and corporeality (nāma-rūpa), rather than immediately analyzing the five aggregates.

This kind of reflection is not restricted to analyzing and distinguishing various factors, but also includes classification and categorization. The emphasis, however, is given on analysis and it is thus referred to as vibhajja (’detailed analysis’). {630}

In the traditional practice of insight meditation as described in the commentaries, the basic analysis of mentality and corporeality is referred to as ’analysis of mind and body’ (nāmarūpa-vavatthāna) or ’contemplation of mind and body’ (nāmarūpa-pariggaha).²⁰ Here, one does not look at people according to their conventional names and designations, of being ’them’ or ’us’, ’Mr. A’ or ’Mrs. B’. Instead one sees them as a combination of physical and mental phenomena. One determines each of the component factors in such a way: ’This is material form, this is mind’, ’material form has these specific characteristics, mental phenomena have these specific characteristics’, ’this factor has this kind of attribute and is thus classified as “form”, while this factor has another kind of attribute and is thus classified as “mind”.’

An analysis of human beings reveals only mind-and-body, or material and mental phenomena. Having trained in such discernment, or gaining skill at such reflection, when encountering living beings and other objects, one will see them as simply a collection of mental and physical elements. They are merely natural phenomena, which are empty of any kind of true substance or permanent self. One’s course of thinking helps to prevent one from being misguided or from overly attaching to conventional reality.

Examples in the Pali Canon of this kind reflection are as follows:

Reflection in Line with Universal Characteristics

Reflection in line with universal characteristics, or reflective discernment of natural truths, refers to a clear understanding of things as they are: an understanding of how things exist, and must exist, according to their own nature. The focus of this reflection is on living beings and things that ordinary people are aware of, that is, conditioned things – things arising from and shaped by causes and conditions and subject to conditionality.

One of these natural truths is the law of impermanence, that all conditioned things, once they are arisen, must cease; they are inconstant, unstable, unenduring, and impermanent (anicca).

Likewise, all conditional factors, both internal and external, perpetually arise and cease. Their interaction with one another causes conflict and friction, which results in conditioned things being under stress. They are unable to maintain an original state of existence and they are subject to alteration and disintegration, a truth which is referred to as dukkha.

The very nature of conditioned phenomena means that they do not belong to anyone, they are not subject to anyone’s wishes or desires, and they cannot be truly owned or controlled by anyone. Similarly, they possess no ’soul’ or ’essence’, either internal or external, which is able to dictate or rule over them. They exist according to their own nature; they exist according to causes and conditions, not according to anyone’s will. This is referred to as the truth of ’nonself’ (anattā).

The reflection here entails an acknowledgement of how all things one engages with exist equally as natural phenomena; they are conditioned formations, existing dependent on conditional factors.

The reflection in line with universal characteristics can be divided into two stages:

1. The first stage includes a discernment and acknowledgement of the truth. At this stage one relates to things in harmony with nature. Such conduct is marked by wisdom and an inner freedom; one is not bound by things.

   Even if one encounters unpleasant or undesirable circumstances, one is able to reflect on how these things, or these situations, proceed in line with a natural course and exist according to causes and conditions. By thinking in this way one begins to accept one’s situation; one is consequently released from suffering, or at the very least one’s suffering abates.

   When one possesses greater mental agility, all one needs to do in such challenging situations is to establish mindfulness and call to mind: ’I will see things according to the truth, not how I want them to be.’ By doing this one’s suffering will decrease immediately, because one begins to be released – one does not subject oneself to stress. Indeed, one does not create a sense of self that is subject to stress.

2. The second stage includes managing and resolving things in line with causal factors. Here one acts with insight, wisdom, and freedom.

   When one acknowledges the conditional nature of things and one wishes for things to be a particular way, one studies and understands the causes and conditions required for things to reach a desired result. One then acts and deals with things at their specific conditional factors. When one fulfils the necessary conditions, irrespective of whether one desires the result or not, it will occur automatically. Similarly, if these necessary conditions are lacking, the result will fail, regardless of one’s desires. In sum, one deals with things by way of knowledge and in line with conditional factors, not through willpower or desire. {632}

   In terms of Dhamma practice, all one needs to do is acknowledge one’s wishes, determine the relevant causes and conditions, and then deal with matters at the point of these conditional factors. By practising in this way one extricates oneself from problems; one is not bound. One does not allow one’s desires to lead one into oppression (one does not allow one’s desires to create a fixed sense of identity). One both acts directly in line with causes and conditions, and allows things to proceed according to such causes and conditions. This way of practice is both the most effectual and is also free from suffering.

   This second stage of reflection in line with universal characteristics is related to the fourth kind of reflection described below, that is, the fourth kind of reflection takes over from the third.

In the traditional practice of insight development (vipassanā), which was developed into a formal system described in the commentaries, the teaching on the seven forms of purity (visuddhi) is used as the master template.²³ In this context, the commentaries use the list of different forms of knowledge (ñāṇa) described in the Paṭisambhidāmagga as a set of criteria,²⁴ and maintain the basic contemplation of phenomena, of separating them into ’mind-and-body’ (nāma-rūpa).

According to this teaching, the development of insight is set down as a system containing clearly defined, progressive steps. The three kinds of reflection mentioned so far are included in this system, in which they are combined into a distinct group of affiliated methods of reflection. The order in which they are presented, however, differs from the order presented above:²⁵

1. The first step entails analytical reasoning or an investigation into component factors (method #2 described above). Here, one distinguishes between mental and material phenomena: one determines what is mind and what is body, what are the different kinds of material and mental phenomena, and what sort of attributes these distinct phenomena possess. This step is referred to as ’contemplation of name-and-form’ (nāmarūpa-pariggaha), ’analysis of name-and-form’ (nāmarūpa-vavatthāna), ’division of name-and-form’ (nāmarūpa-pariccheda), or ’division of formations’ (saṅkhāra-pariccheda). It is classified as ’purity of views’ (diṭṭhi-visuddhi) – the third of the seven kinds of purity.

   The objective here, however, is primarily on understanding and distinguishing phenomena or component factors – to know which things one encounters consist of materiality and which consist of mentality – rather than emphasizing analysis per se.

2. The second step entails an investigation of conditionality (method #1 described above). Here, one searches for and contemplates the causes and conditions of material and mental phenomena in various ways, for example: to contemplate in line with the teaching of Dependent Origination; to contemplate ignorance, craving, grasping, volitional actions (kamma), and nourishment (āhāra); to contemplate in accord with the cognitive process (say by contemplating how eye-consciousness depends on the eye and material forms); and to contemplate according to the cycles of volitional actions (kamma) and their results (vipāka). All of these contemplations are part of the contemplation on Dependent Origination; they simply separate and highlight different aspects of this teaching.

   This step is referred to as ’contemplation of the conditions for name-and-form’ (nāmarūpapaccaya-pariggaha), or in short an ’analysis of conditions’ (paccaya-pariggaha). When this contemplation is complete, it gives rise to an understanding referred to as ’knowledge of the relationship of things’ (dhammaṭṭhiti-ñāṇa), ’knowledge according to reality’ (yathābhūta-ñāṇa), or ’right vision’ (sammā-dassana). This step is classified as ’purity of knowledge leading to the end of doubt’ (kaṅkhāvitaraṇa-visuddhi) – the fourth of the seven kinds of purity.

3. The third step entails a thorough understanding of nature or a reflection in line with universal characteristics (method #3 described above). Here, one contemplates mind-and-body, or conditioned phenomena, according to the teaching on the Three Characteristics. One sees things as impermanent and unstable (anicca), subject to the stress of conditioning factors (dukkha), and as nonself (anattā) – they do not exist as independent entities, they are ultimately insubstantial, and they cannot be truly owned by anyone or controlled by way of desire.

   This step is referred to as ’investigative knowledge’ (sammasana-ñāṇa). It is the beginning of ’purity of knowledge regarding Path and not-path (maggāmaggañāṇadassana-visuddhi) – the fifth of the seven kinds of purity. {633}

The following passages from the Pali Canon describe the joint application of the second and third kinds of reflection mentioned above (the method of analyzing component factors and the method of reflecting in accord with universal characteristics):

The following passage describes an investigation of conditionality combined with a reflection in line with universal characteristics. The objective of this joint contemplation is to gain a thorough understanding of reality, to realize mental freedom, and to be free from suffering:

Reflection in Line with the Four Noble Truths

Reflection in line with the Noble Truths, or reflection used to solve problems, is informally called the ’method of ending suffering’. It is classified as a key form of reflection because it is possible to expand it so that it encompasses all other forms of wise reflection.

This short passage encapsulates this kind of reflection:

This kind of reflection has two general attributes:

1. It is in line with cause and effect. The investigation begins with results and traces back to causes, followed by a subsequent attending to and solving things at their source. It is divided into two pairs:

   Pair #1:

   • Suffering (dukkha) is the result: it is the problem; it is an unsatisfactory situation.

   • The origin of suffering (samudaya) is the cause: it is the source of the problem; it is the agent which must be eliminated or attended to in order to be released from the problem.

   Pair #2:

   • Cessation (nirodha) is the result: it is the end of the problem; it is the goal to be reached.

   • The Path (magga) is the cause: it is the method; it is the way of practice for dealing with the cause of problems and for reaching the goal – the end of suffering.

2. It is relevant, to the point, straightforward and direct; it focuses on those things that one must practise and engage with in order to solves life’s predicaments; it does not digress to matters of indulgence and excess, i.e. to thoughts seeking to gratify craving, conceit, and fixed opinions, which are irrelevant – which cannot be used to solve problems.²⁸

As mentioned earlier, this fourth kind of reflection corresponds with or is connected to the third kind – the reflection in accord with universal characteristics. To begin with, when one encounters a problem and experiences suffering, one is able to come to an acceptance of the situation (in accord with stage #1 of the third kind of reflection, above). Then, when one is prepared to apply wisdom in order to solve the problem (in accord with stage #2 of the third kind of reflection, above), one gradually reflects on the details and particulars described in this fourth kind of reflection.

The principle or essence of reflection in line with the Noble Truths is to begin with an acknowledgement and clear understanding of a problem or of suffering. From here, one searches for the source of this problem in order to attend to it. At the same time, one clearly establishes one’s goal – one knows the goal, one knows whether it is accessible or not, and one knows how to reach it. Finally, one thinks of ways to eliminate the source of the problem, leading to the realization of one’s determined goal.

In the context of this kind of reflection it is necessary to be aware of the responsibilities or duties vis-à-vis each of the Four Noble Truths. To understand the gist of this matter, a summary of the Four Noble Truths along with the corresponding stages of practice is presented below: {635}

Stage 1:

Suffering (dukkha): problems, affliction, frustration, stress, oppression, and deficiencies encountered by people in their lives. In the most comprehensive sense this refers to the state in which conditioned phenomena, the mind and body, the five aggregates, or the entire world is subject to the laws of nature: they are impermanent and inconstant; they are under pressure by and dependent upon conditioning factors; they do not possess a ’self’ which can be controlled and dominated by anyone – consequently they conflict with desire and attachment, leading to misery and dissatisfaction.

Our sole responsibility in the face of suffering is to recognize and understand it: to clearly understand its nature and the extent of the problems. This is similar to a doctor who examines and diagnoses an illness. This responsibility is referred to as ’thorough knowledge’ (pariññā).

Our responsibility is not to brood over or worry about these problems, or to resent the suffering and try and get rid of it, for thinking in this way only increases it. It is fine to desire the end of suffering, but suffering cannot be dispelled by desire. It can only be dispelled by understanding it and by eliminating its causes. Hankering to end suffering only causes further harm.

Besides acknowledging suffering, one also accepts the natural course of things, as described in stage #1 of the third kind of reflection, above. When one has gained a thorough understanding of suffering, or of problems, then one’s duties in the context of this stage are complete. One is prepared to move on to the second stage.

Stage 2:

The cause of suffering (samudaya): the origin of problems; the various conditioning factors that come together and conflict with one another, leading to diverse forms of stress, pressure, affliction, discomfort, and deficiency. One needs to discover these causes and then perform the responsibility of pahāna: elimination or abandonment.

The Buddha described the principal agents that go hand-in-hand with human suffering, both the actor standing at the front of the stage – craving (taṇhā)²⁹ – and the entire cast, or the complete process, that is, the chain of conditioning factors beginning with ignorance (avijjā), outlined in the teaching of Dependent Origination.³⁰

When one experiences suffering or encounters a specific problem one needs to look for the related causes and conditions in accord with the first kind of reflection, above (the investigation of causes and conditions). If the problem stems from conditioning factors within oneself, one reflects on the principal agents (craving, or all factors of Dependent Origination) along with accompanying conditions specific to that situation. When one has investigated, analyzed, and discovered the root of the problem which must be eliminated or abandoned, one’s reflections in the context of this second stage are complete.

Stage 3:

Cessation (nirodha): the cessation of suffering; the release from suffering; the end of all problems. This is the goal, in respect to which our responsibility is sacchikiriyā: to realize, actualize, accomplish or reach it.

This stage requires the following reflections: What is the desired goal? What is the purpose of spiritual practice? Where am I going in this practice? Is this goal realistic? How can it be achieved? What are the principles having to do with reaching this goal? What are the subsidiary goals or the gradual sequence of lesser goals along the path to reaching the main goal?

Stage 4:

Path (magga): the way leading to the cessation of suffering; the ways of practice for bringing suffering to an end; the methods for solving problems. This refers to those methods and details of practice required for eliminating the cause of problems and for reaching the desired goal. Our responsibility in this stage is bhāvanā: cultivation, practice, application.

In regard to contemplation, the necessary task is to determine those measures, procedures, and tactics required for successfully dealing with the source of problems, and which are in harmony with the desired goal. {636}

Reflection on Goals and Principles

This method refers to reflecting on and understanding the relationship between goals (attha) and principles (dhamma).³¹ This is a very important reflection when one undertakes spiritual practice or follows a specific teaching, preventing one’s actions from being erratic, aimless, or gullible.

The term dhamma here means ’principle’ or ’basis’. It refers to principles of truth, of virtue, and of practice, and it includes teachings which should be applied and followed correctly.

Attha is defined as ’meaning’, ’objective’, ’goal’, ’desired benefit’, or ’desired essence’.

In Dhamma practice, or when following any sort of principle, it is necessary to understand the meaning or purpose of that activity. One should ask the questions: ’Why was this principle (dhamma) established?’ ’Where does it lead to, both in terms of the final goal, and in terms of intermediate targets which are connected to other principles?’

A correct understanding of principles and objectives leads to the right practice referred to as dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti, which is traditionally translated as ’to practise the Dhamma in a way appropriate to the Dhamma’. It can also be translated as ’practising minor principles of Dhamma consistent with major principles of Dhamma’. Very simply, this means practising the Dhamma correctly: acting in such a way that subsidiary factors of practice are in harmony with and nourish key principles of practice, leading to the desired goal.³²

Practising the Dhamma correctly (dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti) as described above is vital. One can say that it is the criterion determining whether Dhamma practice or a specific activity will succeed and reach its goal or not. {637}

If one practises the Dhamma incorrectly one’s practice will be defective, fruitless, and naive; it may even have the opposite desired effect and cause harm.

Every principle (dhamma) has an objective and goal (attha); whatever one engages in, one must be able to answer the question: ’What am I doing this for?’

There is a great emphasis on this form of reflection in Dhamma practice, both as an attribute of individuals, for example in the seven qualities of a virtuous person (sappurisa-dhamma) and the four kinds of analytic insight (paṭisambhidā), and as part of a gradual sequence of practice, for example in the four virtues conducive to growth in wisdom (paññāvuḍḍhi-dhamma) and in the ways of practice described below.

Following are some passages from the Pali Canon on this subject:

The sequence of the principles described in the previous quotation can be outlined as follows:

To listen to and study the Dhamma →
to memorize the Dhamma →
to reflect on its meaning →
to practise the Dhamma in a way appropriate to the Dhamma.

This same sequence is found in many other suttas, and can thus be considered an important principle of Buddhist training and practice.³⁵

Let us compare this teaching with the principle of wisdom development, or the four factors making for stream-entry:

These two teachings are essentially the same. Note, however, that in the former teaching the factor of wise reflection (yoniso-manasikāra) is replaced by the term ’reflection on the meaning’ (atthupaparikkhā).

The use of the term atthupaparikkhā here seems to be narrowing the definition of yoniso-manasikāra in this circumstance, by focusing primarily on this fifth kind of reflection being discussed in this section. That is, when one understands the relationship between principles (dhamma) and objectives (attha), one reaches the next step of proper application of the teachings (dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti).

Many sutta passages clarify the relationship between dhamma (principle) and attha (objective; essence; benefit; purpose) for example:

The following sutta passages clarify the meaning of the terms attha and dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti: {640}

This reflection and understanding of goals and principles is worthy of constant attention. Indeed, the ’middleness’ (majjhimā) of the Middle Way is determined by an understanding and awareness of the true goal of practice. Moreover, each subdivision or factor of the Middle Way has specific objectives, as well as a common goal, which need to be borne in mind and understood in order to practise them correctly: for these factors to be well-integrated with one another and for them to lead gradually to the intended goal. In other words, a knowledge and understanding of the objectives, benefits, and limitations of specific spiritual factors determines the correctness and evenness of one’s practice, resulting in dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti: to practise the Dhamma in a way appropriate to the Dhamma.

From a perspective of the ultimate good (paramattha) – not from the perspective of mundane welfare (diṭṭhadhammikattha), heavenly welfare (samparāyikattha), others’ welfare (parattha), or social welfare – virtuous conduct (sīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā) share the same final goal of Nibbāna. But from a more limited perspective, each of these three factors has its own perimeter and sphere of activity which must be linked with the function of the others, enabling the attainment of the final goal. By themselves these factors cannot lead to ultimate success; at the same time each one of these factors is essential and indispensable. Thus the maxim: virtuous conduct leads to concentration; concentration leads to wisdom; and wisdom leads to liberation.

If one practises moral conduct without a clear direction it may become an adherence to rules and religious practices (sīlabbata-parāmāsa), feeding into the extreme of self-mortification (attakilamathānuyoga). If one develops concentration without reflecting on its true purpose, one may get caught up in psychic powers, strengthening wrong view or various forms of base arts (tiracchāna-vijjā). If one develops wisdom that is not conducive to liberation, one deviates from the Middle Way and does not reach the goal of Buddhism; one may get lost along the path or become stuck in some form of wrong view. {641}

For this reason, it is possible for a Dhamma practitioner to practise incorrectly and go astray at every stage of practice. For example, in relation to the beginning stage of practice, of virtuous conduct, there exists the general tenet that a strict and pure observance of moral precepts and rules is an essential quality of a Dhamma practitioner; he or she must constantly give great import to moral conduct. Nevertheless, despite a strict observance to morality, if one lacks an awareness of the relationship between principles (dhamma) and goals (attha) – if one forgets the true purpose and objective of moral conduct, as well as its parameters, benefits, and place in relation to other factors – one may be remiss in one’s practice at any time.

A person may mistakenly consider morality as inherently complete, as something existing in isolation, not as part of a larger spiritual process. Alternatively, a lack of awareness about the true purpose and objective of moral conduct may lead people to attach to various conventions, to simply follow traditional ways of behaving without understanding the reasons for such behaviour; they do not see that sīla is a tool for training oneself.

Some people unconsciously entertain the belief that moral strictness or puritanism is good and complete in itself; goodness and spiritual accomplishment is achieved simply by adhering to a code of ethics. Morality thus becomes an end in itself rather than a stage of practice leading to a higher goal.

Other people indulge in the belief that the stricter or more austere one practises, the better. For such people an awareness of the true purpose of moral conduct is completely absent. They create increasingly severe and austere forms of practice. Those who witness such practices in others and who lack wise reflection will equally be led astray: their faith will increase in proportion to the extreme austerities they see in others.

This kind of belief is one cause for peculiar forms of ascetic practices, which the Buddha referred to as ’severe (or brutish) practices of naked ascetics’. Such practices are examples of an adherence to rules and practices (sīlabbata-parāmāsa) and fall under the extreme of self-mortification (attakilamathānuyoga). Examples of such practices include: eating only fermented vegetables; eating grass; eating only fallen fruit; wearing discarded cloth; wearing grass garments; pulling out the head hair and beard; and lying on a bed of thorns. Indeed, there exist many more extreme forms of practice as those just mentioned. (See Note Ascetic Practices)

People who understand the true objective of moral conduct will also give precedence to moral strictness and ethical codes, but they will reflect on the relationship of morality to other aspects of spiritual practice. They are able to discriminate, by reflecting in the following ways: ’These are universal principles of morality, while these are supplementary observances and practices’; ’This person should strictly observe this precept for this reason’; ’This precept should be compulsory for everyone equally, for this reason or for this desired result’; ’This practice should be voluntary, because of these differences between individual people’; ’This person practises strictly and has attained success, while this other person practises strictly and has not succeeded – why is this so?’; ’This person does not practise very strictly but has made more progress than another person who practises strictly – what are the reasons for this?’

This kind of reflection, on principles and goals, may be less important when one has a virtuous friend and teacher nearby. In such a circumstance, one relies in large part on faith in the teacher’s wisdom and a trust that one’s practice will gradually progress. If the teacher is truly wise and skilled, he or she will be able to explain the principles and objectives at each stage of practice. {642}

Reflection on Advantages, Disadvantages, and the Escape

The reflection on advantages (assāda), disadvantages (ādīnava), and the escape (nissaraṇa) is another method of discerning things as they really are, by emphasizing the acknowledgement of every aspect of a particular object, including its good and bad features. This reflection is directly linked to the practical application of Dhamma teachings, and includes a recognition of how important it is to clearly understand a problem and to know one’s intended destination before making the effort to solve the problem. Similarly, before abandoning one thing in order to take up another, one must know both things well, leading to the insight that such action is suitable, correct, and done with circumspection.

• Assāda: advantage; merit; good quality; sweetness; gratifying aspect; delicious aspect.

• Ādīnava: disadvantage; fault; defect; drawback; shortcoming; danger; harmful aspect.

• Nissaraṇa: escape; way out; state of deliverance; relinquishment; freedom from problems; inherent completeness; a state of true goodness, independent of merits and defects, free from problems and those things that one has abandoned.

There are two important attributes of this form of reflection:

1. To see things according to the truth means that one sees both the good and bad sides, both the merits and harmful aspects, of an object. One does not simply see only the good aspects or only the negative aspects. For example, to truly see into the nature of sense desire (kāma), one knows both its merits and its harmful aspects.⁴¹

2. When one wishes to solve a problem or to escape from an undesirable situation, it is not enough to simply know the merits and harm – the advantages and disadvantages – of that problematic item or that unsatisfactory situation. One must also see the way out and to see the goal – to see the nature of the goal and how to get there. How is the goal better than those defects, weaknesses, and harmful aspects that one is currently facing? Is it true that by reaching this goal one is no longer dependent on these former advantages and disadvantages? Does this goal – this freedom from problems – truly exist?

One should not hastily try and get rid of problems or be too rash in one’s practice. For example, although the Buddha clearly understood the many harmful effects and faults of sensuality, until he had seen the way out of sensuality, he did not assert that he would not return to indulge in it:⁴²

These passages from the Pali Canon describe this kind of reflection, which can be applied in a general context, even to individual spiritual factors. For example, the Paṭisambhidāmagga describes the advantages and disadvantages of the five spiritual faculties (indriya). In regard to concentration, the absence of restlessness (uddhacca), the absence of agitation due to restlessness, the strength resulting from having a steadfast mind, and the refined states of happiness (sukhavihāra-dhamma) comprise the advantages (assāda) of concentration. The fact that restlessness and the agitation due to restlessness can return, and that concentration is impermanent, subject to stress, and not-self, comprise its disadvantages (ādīnava).⁴⁶

Generally speaking, in everyday life and practice, people are faced with choices, between those things that are harmful and other things that are meritorious and free from danger. Even in the case of an escape (nissaraṇa), the possible ways out are relative, that is, one chooses the optimum way out in a specific circumstance.

In these situations one should not neglect to use this form of reflection on the advantages, disadvantages, and escape. One should acknowledge the positive aspects of those things or those practices that one is abandoning. And very importantly, one should not overlook the dangers, faults, shortcomings, and opportunities for loss of those things that one chooses to undertake.

Reflecting on things in this manner enables one to practise in an optimal and vigilant way. One may be able to retain the positive aspects of those things one has abandoned, and one may be able to avoid or to redeem the negative or faulty aspects of those things one has undertaken.

An example of this form of reflection in the context of formal Dhamma teachings is the Buddha’s key teaching referred to as the ’graduated sermon’ (anupubbikathā). The Buddha gave this teaching regularly and to a general audience, especially before describing the Four Noble Truths.

The graduated sermon outlines a virtuous, charitable, and upright life, based on the principles of generosity (dāna) and moral conduct (sīla). It then describes the abundant happiness and contentment – referred to as a happy or heavenly abiding (sagga) – that results from living such a virtuous life. From here it describes the drawbacks, deficiencies, dangers and imperfection of that form of happiness and abundance, referred to here as the ’disadvantages of sensual pleasure’ (kāmādīnava). Finally, it describes the escape along with the benefits of escape, referred to as the ’benefits of renouncing sensual pleasure’ (nekkhammānisaṁsa). When the listener saw these benefits, the Buddha concluded by teaching the Four Noble Truths. {646}

Reflection on the True and Counterfeit Value of Things

The reflection on the true and counterfeit value of things, or the reflection on using and consuming (paṭisevanā), acts to prevent or dispel craving (taṇhā). It is applied to subdue defilements or to prevent defilements from overwhelming the mind, and it then influences people’s subsequent behaviour.

This form of reflection may be applied often in everyday life because it is connected to the use of the four requisites and to the consumption of material objects. It follows the basic maxim that human beings relate to things because they have needs and believe that these things will satisfy their needs. Whichever things satisfy our needs are considered valuable or useful. The value of things can be classified into two kinds, according to the nature of a person’s needs and requirements:

1. True value: this refers to the direct value, benefit, or meaning of an object in meeting the requirements for human life. Alternatively, it refers to the way in which people use things in order to address personal issues, aiming for personal wellbeing or the welfare of others.

   This true value relies on wisdom for assessment and evaluation; it can even be called the value conforming to wisdom. For example, the true value of food is that it nourishes the body, sustains life, facilitates good health and physical comfort, and provides one with strength to perform one’s activities. The true value of a car is that it enables one to travel quickly, and supports one’s work, overall way of life, and meritorious actions; in choosing a car one should focus on convenience, safety, stability, endurance, etc.

2. Supplementary or counterfeit value: this refers to the value, benefit, or meaning of an object that people add to it in order to experience sense pleasure or to boost and reinforce a cherished sense of self. This counterfeit value relies on craving for assessment and evaluation; it can be called the value gratifying craving. For example, a person gives value to food because it is delicious, it adds to a sense of fun, it is a mark of luxury, or it helps one to look smart and stylish. Similarly, a person chooses a car because it is a sign of wealth and status; here, one focuses on the car’s beauty and brand name distinction.

This form of reflection is applied when relating to things in general: when acquiring, consuming, using, and owning things. Here, one gives emphasis to understanding the true value of things, recognizing what is of genuine benefit to oneself and others.

Besides truly benefitting people’s lives, a recognition of the true value of things supports the development of wholesome qualities like mindfulness, and through the application of wisdom it frees people from the enslavement by material things. Moreover, it is accompanied by a sense of appropriateness and moderation. This is in contrast to attaching a counterfeit value on things through craving, which provides little benefit and can even endanger people’s lives. It increases such unwholesome qualities as greed, infatuation, jealousy, arrogance, conceit, and false views, and leads to conflict and oppression. For example, a meal costing three dollars eaten with discernment may be of more benefit to one’s body than a meal costing fifty dollars eaten in order to boost one’s self-image or simply for sensual gratification.

Reflection Rousing Wholesome Qualities

Wise reflection rousing wholesome qualities can also be referred to as reflection mobilizing virtue, reflection on cultivating virtue, or contemplation conducive to a wholesome and beneficial course of thinking. It is used to prevent, reduce, or dispel craving, and is thus classified as part of preliminary spiritual practice. It promotes the growth of wholesome qualities and generates mundane right view.

The general premise behind this form of reflection is that different people may experience or cognize the same phenomenon in different ways. They may see and think in a different manner, according to the structure of their minds, their accumulated habits and proclivities (i.e. their saṅkhārā – the ’fashioners’ or ’determinants’ of the mind), or their considerations in that moment.

In regard to a single object, one person may look at it and think in wholesome, beneficial and virtuous ways, while another person may look at it and think in negative, harmful or unwholesome ways. Similarly, and for the same reasons mentioned above, a single person may experience the same object at different points in time, and create different ideas and opinions about it. At one moment he likes it, in the next he does not. {648}

This form of reflection plays an important role in generating wholesome thoughts and actions during the time of reflection, and in helping to rectify longstanding negative habits and inclinations, while at the same time creating new, alternative wholesome habits.

On the contrary, if one lacks this skilful means of reflection, one’s thoughts and actions will be influenced by the power of accumulated habits alone, which will in turn be continually reinforced by these thoughts and actions.

One simple example of this which is found in the scriptures is the reflection on death. If one applies unwise or unskilful attention (ayoniso-manasikāra), unwholesome states will arise. For example, when one thinks of death one feels depressed, sad, discouraged, or frightened, or when one thinks of the death of an enemy one feels delight.

If one applies wise reflection, on the other hand, wholesome states will arise. One will feel vigilant and inspired; one will strive to perform one’s duties, act in beneficial ways, and practise the Dhamma, and one will gain insight into the true nature of conditioned phenomena.

As outlined in the scriptures, a skilful reflection on death includes the factors of mindfulness (sati; to be circumspect; to bear in mind those things that need to be engaged with), a sense of urgency (saṁvega; motivation), and knowledge (ñāṇa; knowledge in line with the truth). Many skilful methods are recommended in regard to reflection on death.⁴⁸

There are many passages in the Tipiṭaka in which the Buddha describes how in the same incident or situation one way of thinking will lead to laziness while another way will lead to effort. Here is one example:

By reflecting in another manner, however, each of these identical situations can lead to the application of effort. The eight occasions for commencing the making of effort (ārabbha-vatthu) are as follows:

In the case that negative thoughts arise, the scriptures suggest methods for addressing them, and most of these methods entail the use of reflection rousing wholesome qualities. For example, in the Vitakkasaṇṭhāna Sutta the Buddha describes five general principles or stages for dealing with unwholesome thoughts.⁵⁰ In sum, if evil, unwholesome thoughts accompanied by greed,⁵¹ hatred, or delusion arise, one can rectify them in the following ways:

1. To think about or pay attention to (manasikāra) something else – something wholesome and virtuous. For instance one thinks about something generating a feeling of lovingkindness, instead of something that rouses anger. If by doing this, the negative thoughts still prevail:

2. To consider the harm of such negative thoughts – on how they are unskilful and destructive, and lead to suffering. If they continue:

3. To conduct one’s life by not paying attention to such negative thoughts, similar to how a person who does not want to see something closes his eyes or looks at something else. If they still do not cease:

4. To reflect on the conditioned nature (saṅkhāra-saṇṭhāna) of such thoughts: to hold these thoughts in awareness as objects of study for increasing knowledge, rather than considering them as personal problems. One investigates the nature of these thoughts and searches for their root causes. If they still do not disappear:

5. To clamp down on one’s teeth and press one’s tongue to the roof of one’s mouth, making a firm determination to restrain and eliminate these negative thoughts.

In some passages, methods are described for addressing specific kinds of unwholesome thoughts. For example, the Buddha suggested the following methods for eliminating malice and resentment: one should develop lovingkindness, compassion, and equanimity in regard to that person who is the object of one’s resentment; one should simply disregard that person; or one should consider that person in light of the principles of kamma, that that person is the owner of his kamma, the heir to his kamma, born of his kamma, related to his kamma, abides supported by his kamma, whatever kamma he should do, for good or for ill, of that he will be the heir.⁵²

Similarly, Ven. Sāriputta suggested five methods for eliminating malice and aversion, which are based on an understanding of the differences between people:

1. Some people, although their physical actions are not impeccable, their speech is well-mannered and disciplined.

2. Some people, although their speech is bad mannered, their physical actions are impeccable.

3. Some people, although neither their speech nor their physical actions are well-mannered, their mind is still occasionally wholesome and pure.

4. Some people have bad-mannered speech and physical actions, and their minds have no opportunity to be virtuous and pure, even temporarily.

5. Some people have impeccable speech and physical actions, and their minds are constantly virtuous and pure. {651}

In regard to those people whose physical actions are faulty but whose speech is well-mannered, one should dispel one’s aversion by focusing on their wholesome speech and disregarding their unwholesome physical deeds. This is similar to a monk who keeps the dhutaṅga rule of wearing only rag robes. When he finds a discarded rag on the road, he steps on it with his left foot, spreads it out with his right foot, and tears off only those parts which are good and usable.

In regard to those people whose speech is faulty but whose physical actions are well-mannered, one should focus on their wholesome deeds and disregard their unskilful speech. This is similar to a lotus pond completely covered by algae. When a traveller arrives, hot, tired, and thirsty, he goes down into the pond, sweeps the algae away with his hands, cups his hands together to scoop up the water, drinks, and goes on his way.

In regard to those people whose verbal and physical actions are faulty, but who know occasional moments of goodness and purity, one should disregard their tainted verbal and physical actions. Instead, one should focus on the fact that their minds are occasionally open to goodness. This is similar to a small amount of water contained in a cow’s hoof print. A traveller, hot, tired, and thirsty, sees this water and thinks: ’There is only a little water in this hoof print. If I scoop it up with my hands or with a bowl, the water will become so cloudy that it may become unpotable. Why don’t I kneel down, support myself with my arms, and drink like a cow?’ In this way he drinks the water and goes on his way.

In regard to those people whose verbal and physical actions are faulty, and furthermore whose minds are not virtuous and pure even temporarily, one should establish oneself in kindness and compassion, thinking of ways to assist them, by considering: ’Indeed, let this person abandon such unwholesome actions by body, speech, and mind, and cultivate wholesome actions. May this person not die and be reborn in a state of perdition, misery, ruin, in hell.’ This is like a sick person, afflicted and gravely ill, who is on a long journey. Both the next village ahead and the preceding village behind are far away. He is unable to obtain suitable food, medicine, and nursing care, or to find someone to lead him to a village. Another traveller sees him and responds with kindness and eagerness to help, thinking: ’May this person obtain suitable food, medicine, and care, or find someone to lead him to a village. May this person not end in ruin and destruction here.’

In regard to those people whose speech and physical actions are impeccable, and whose minds are continually virtuous and pure, one should focus on their constant verbal, physical and mental purity. Such people are considered worthy of respect in all facets of their lives. Moreover, they engender a joyous and pure mind in those who think of them. This is similar to a beautiful lotus pond with clear and cool water and with tranquil borders covered with various plants. When a traveller arrives, parched, tired, and thirsty, he goes down into the pond and drinks the water, and then either sits or lies down in the shade of the bordering trees.⁵³ {652}

The Visuddhimagga describes many methods of contemplation for dispelling angry, resentful thoughts. These can be summarized as a series of stages and should be applied as is suitable to a person’s individual disposition:⁵⁴

1. To recollect the Buddha’s teachings on overcoming anger and on practising lovingkindness; to remind oneself that getting caught up in anger is to fail to follow the teachings of one’s teacher – the Buddha. There are numerous teachings by the Buddha on anger. For example, he told the monks that even if one were to be captured by bandits and cut in half with a saw, if one were to harbour malice and hatred towards them, one could not be said to be following the Buddha’s teachings. Moreover, an angry person creates self-inflicted harm consistent with the wishes of his enemies, for example: his appearance is wretched, his facial features are cheerless, he sleeps miserably, etc. Furthermore, if someone else is angry and one responds with anger, one is worse than that person. Someone who does not respond to anger with anger is called one who has won an extremely difficult battle, and helps both parties – both himself and the other person involved. If by considering in this way one’s anger is not dispelled:

2. To think about the other person’s good qualities; to reflect only on the person’s good attributes. If one does not discern any good qualities in that person, one should establish one’s mind in compassion, by considering how he will invariably encounter harmful effects from his evil actions. If by considering in this way, one’s anger is not dispelled:

3. To inform oneself that getting caught up in anger only creates trouble and misery for oneself. The person with whom one is angry is unaware of one’s misery and remains unaffected. An angry person thus ends up hurting himself, destroys the good qualities acting as a basis for virtuous conduct, and performs the actions of an ’ignoble person’ (anariya-puggala). If an angry person thinks of harming someone else, regardless of whether he accomplishes this deed or not, he invariably hurts himself first and experiences suffering. If by contemplating in this way, one’s anger is still not appeased:

4. To reflect in line with the law of kamma that every person is the owner of his or her actions; all people, including oneself, must reap the fruit of their individual actions. If we are caught up in anger, this itself is negative kamma and we will experience the ill-effects of this unskilful action. Likewise, if others behave badly, they will receive the effects of these actions. If by thinking in this way one’s anger is still not dispelled:

5. To consider the Buddha’s goodness – his cultivation of the perfections (pāramī); to recollect as an ideal the Buddha’s acts of self-sacrifice, ever since he was a bodhisatta. There are many Jātaka stories, for instance, describing how he sacrificed his life for others, even the lives of his enemies; when they acted spitefully towards him, he did not seek revenge but rather was able to win them over through goodness. One can similarly reflect on other examples of the cultivation by specific individuals of the perfections of renunciation and patience, in order to strengthen one’s resolve and establish oneself in virtuous conduct. If by contemplating in this way, one’s anger is still not appeased:

6. To consider the enormous length of time of the round of rebirth, in reference to which it is taught that it is difficult to find anyone who has not previously been one’s mother, father, brother, sister, son, daughter, relative, or companion – those who have offered support and assistance in the past. One should reflect on how the person with whom one is angry has most likely been one’s parent or child in the past. This incident arousing anger is simply a minor event – a single episode – in one’s long shared history. One should refrain from fostering hatred and harbouring thoughts of ill-will towards each other. If by contemplating in this way one’s anger still remains: {653}

7. To reflect on the blessings of lovingkindness; to consider the benefits of kindness, for example: one goes to sleep with joy; one wakes with joy; one does not have nightmares; and one is cherished by others. One should act kindly in order to reap these benefits. If by considering in this way, one’s anger does not disappear:

8. To distinguish and analyze various elements (dhātu), in order to discern that in the context of getting worked up and angry, one is in fact dealing with conventional phenomena, that is, one simply assumes that this or that person exists as a separate entity. In truth, there is only the convergence of the thirty-two parts (e.g. hair of the head, hair of the body, nails, teeth, and skin), of various elements, of the five aggregates, and of the twelve sense spheres. Wherever one’s anger is directed, it has no purchase, no true foundation on which to rest. If by considering in this way, one is still not free from anger:

9. To make a physical gesture of offering a gift; to find something to give in order to show one’s goodwill and to exchange gifts with the other person. Giving helps to soften people’s hearts; it brings people together, enabling them to speak with one another with kindly words. It is thus an extremely effective instrument for quelling malice.

These are simple examples of methods of contemplation classified under the heading of ’reflection rousing wholesome qualities’. Some of these methods can be used in everyday circumstances, while others are used in relation to specific virtues. The important point here is that by understanding the general principles and methods of this form of reflection well, a person clever at skilful means will be able to devise additional detailed and effective models of this kind of reflection, which are suitable to cultivating specific virtues, consistent with and relevant to the ways of thinking of people in their specific time period. One can say that this rousing of wholesome qualities is the most conducive kind of reflection for developing and discovering supplementary methods of practice, as befitting different kinds of personal dispositions, and corresponding to the changing external conditions of time and place.

Here, it is important to reemphasize the role of mindfulness (sati), which constantly keeps one’s thinking within the domain of wise reflection. Mindfulness prevents one’s thinking from erring into unwise reflection and helps pull attention back, re-establishing it in wise reflection. A person who sustains wise reflection thus applies mindfulness continually.

It is possible to divide all kinds of wise reflection into two categories: wise reflection used for understanding the truth and wise reflection for cultivating wholesome qualities. The point of divergence between these two exists at the moment of establishing one’s thoughts, and mindfulness can play an important role in deciding between these two kinds of wise reflection, in a similar way that it chooses wise over unwise reflection. For example, when one cognizes a sense object and mindfulness focuses attention in order to understand its true nature, this corresponds with wise reflection for understanding the truth. If mindfulness focuses on a specific virtue, however, or recollects a wholesome image in the mind, this corresponds with wise reflection for cultivating wholesome qualities. Wise reflection for understanding the truth depends on truth, which exists according to its own nature, and thus this reflection is certain and unified. Wise reflection for cultivating wholesome qualities, however, is a matter connected to mental conceptions within the sphere of volitional formations (saṅkhāra), and it is thus capable of being diversified and taking many shapes. {654}

Reflection by Abiding in the Present Moment

This ninth kind of reflection, of dwelling in the moment – or reflection with present phenomena as its focus of attention – is simply another aspect of other forms of reflection. One can say that it is combined with or encompasses the previous eight kinds of reflection. The reason for distinguishing it, however, is that it has a unique importance and has some attributes requiring special understanding.

The gist of this kind of reflection is contained and outlined in the teaching on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, which will be discussed in the section on the seventh factor of the Eightfold Path – right mindfulness.⁵⁵ The reason for including this kind of reflection here is that there is a distinct focus in these two contexts. The description within the Four Foundations of Mindfulness focuses on the establishment of mindfulness, by bearing in mind and being fully awake to things as they arise and exist, to the process of cognition, and to one’s present activities in every moment. In this context of wise reflection, however, the focus is on the application and content of thought, which is focused on by mindfulness.

The point requiring special attention in relation to this kind of reflection is the misunderstanding about the true meaning of abiding in the present moment. That is, some people believe that Buddhism teaches to only think about things existing in the immediate present; it dissuades people from thinking about the past or the future, or from planning for future events. Practitioners who have this misunderstanding will stray from Buddhist principles, and non-Buddhists who have this understanding will focus on the harmful consequences they believe Buddhism causes for its followers.

The important points to understand concerning the past, the present, and the future in relation to this ninth kind of wise reflection are as follows:⁵⁶

In short, thinking that is not grounded in the present moment – thinking caught up in the past or drifting off into the future – follows the direction of and is subject to craving; it follows one’s feelings, or in modern parlance it falls under the sway of one’s emotions.⁵⁷ In this case one hankers after and longs for those things that have passed one by, because of an attachment to or a lingering over a mental image or memory, or one drifts off into abstract thoughts and fantasies of things that may or may not take place in the future, because one feels stifled, frustrated, and discontent with the conditions one faces and wants to escape from the present.

Thinking that remains in the present moment, on the other hand, follows the direction of knowledge or is subject to the power of wisdom. If one is able to think in this way, regardless of whether one’s thoughts are of present, past, or future events, they are still classified as an abiding in the present. It is clear that in Buddhism wise consideration of the past, present, and future at every stage of practice is both vital and correct. This is true for the stage of everyday practice, like learning from lessons experienced in the past and being careful to prevent danger in the future, up to the stage of realizing the truth; and it is even an aspect of the Buddha’s activities, in which he applied say the knowledge of the recollection of past lives (pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa), knowledge of the past (atītaṁsa-ñāṇa), and knowledge of the future (anāgataṁsa-ñāṇa). {655}

The true meanings of the terms ’past’, ’present’ and ’future’ in the Buddhist teachings, in the context of spiritual training, are not the same as how people generally understand these terms. People’s general concept of the term ’present’ encompasses a rather broad and indistinct period of time. In the context of Buddhist spiritual practice, however, the ’present’ refers to a single immediate moment of time. On a deeper level, to dwell or to live in the present refers to being mindful, to remain fully attentive to that which one is experiencing or doing in each and every moment. If one cognizes something and either delight or aversion arises, one then gets stuck at and revolves around the mental image of that thing which one has created in one’s mind. One thus ’falls’ into the past, does not keep abreast of things as they really are, and slips away from the present moment. Alternatively, if one falls away from the present and begins to fantasize about things that have not yet come to pass, based on an attachment to specific mental images, then one drifts off into the future. For this reason, the ’past’ and the ’future’ as defined in the Buddhist teachings may be a part of the general worldly understanding of the term ’present’.

Here we see one important aspect of the way in which the ’present’ is defined in the Buddhist teachings: the focus is not so much on events in the world or on external phenomena, but rather on those things with which one is immediately engaged. For this reason, those things that are considered to be the past or the future according to people’s general understanding may in the Buddhist context refer to the present, just as people’s general concepts of the present may in the Buddhist context refer to the past or future, as mentioned above. In Buddhism, the present pertains to one’s involvement and association with things, which requires an understanding and an engaged response, and which in a wider sense extends to one’s daily-life practice. In relation to thinking, the ’present’ encompasses all events that are linked to one’s immediate experience and current considerations: to those things which one is engaged with, which require some form of active response, or which are connected to one’s spiritual practice. This is very different from muddled, incoherent, aimless, or abstract thoughts connected to pleasing or displeasing sense objects, or from getting caught up in delight and aversion.

These descriptions of the past, present, and future are made clear in the following teachings by the Buddha. The teachings by the Buddha about neither dwelling in the past nor fantasizing about the future help to sever such errant thoughts by encouraging people to stay attentive to those things that truly exist while they are engaged in their activities, as is evident from the following canonical passages:

Note the mental attitude in respect to time of someone who is not subject to craving as described in these preceding sutta passages, and compare this with a wise engagement with the future as described in the passages below. These include teachings on the everyday life of laypeople as well as on the duties of the bhikkhus. They include both personal and social responsibilities:

Here is an example of how the monks should take the future into account when performing their individual duties:

Another sutta passage contains a teaching for monks who live in the forest: by considering five potential dangers, they should live vigilantly, make effort, and dedicate themselves resolutely in order to fulfil the unfulfilled, attain the unattained, and realize the unrealized. They should consider the future thus: ’I live alone in the forest. I may be bitten by a snake or centipede, stung by a scorpion, or slip and fall. I may have food poisoning, a disturbance of bile or phlegm, or a severe case of sunstroke. I may encounter a fierce animal like a lion, tiger, or bear. I may meet a malevolent person or non-human being and thus come to harm. I may even be killed due to one of these causes. I should thus rouse energy to reach those states that I have not yet reached.’

There is a similar teaching by the Buddha on contemplations for safeguarding the future wellbeing of the community:

The Buddha gave another teaching on the future dangers for the monastic community:

These aforementioned explanations help to distinguish between thoughts of the past and future that are subject to craving – that are incoherent and fanciful, are a waste of time, and damage the quality of the mind – and those thoughts of the past and future based on wisdom, which are connected to present activities and are supportive to spiritual practice.

When one practises according to these principles, one is able to make effective preparations and plans for the future. This is made manifest in the important historical activities of the monastic sangha. The first recitation (saṅgāyanā), for example, came about because the monks gave consideration to the future, which was connected to their present responsibilities.⁶² {660}

Reflection Corresponding to Analytic Discussion (vibhajja-vāda)

Analytic discussion (vibhajja-vāda) is not literally a method of reflection, but rather a method of speaking or a method of describing principles contained in specific teachings.

In any case, thinking and speaking are intimately connected actions. Before one speaks, one must first think; speech is always preceded by thought. There are Dhamma teachings designating applied thought (vitakka) and sustained thought (vicāra) as the conditions shaping speech (vacī-saṅkhāra).⁶³ Thus, it is possible to discuss analytic speech on the level of thought.

There are deeper meanings to the Pali word vāda (’speech’; ’discussion’), pointing to patterns of thought which are the source of entire systems of teachings, described as distinct doctrines, religions, or philosophical traditions. For this reason, the term vāda is a synonym for the term diṭṭhi (’view’). Therefore, the doctrine of extreme realism (sabbatthika-vāda), for example, is equivalent to sabbatthika-diṭṭhi, the doctrine of nihilism (natthika-vāda) is equivalent to natthika-diṭṭhi, the doctrine of eternalism (sassata-vāda) is equivalent to sassata-diṭṭhi, and the doctrine of annihilationism (uccheda-vāda) is equivalent to uccheda-diṭṭhi.

The term vibhajja-vāda is an epithet for Buddhism. It is an important term, indicating a Buddhist way of thinking. This way of thinking encompasses many different kinds of reflection previously discussed in this chapter. Besides introducing some new aspects of wise reflection, a description of vibhajja-vāda also helps to understand the previous kinds of reflection more clearly.

The reason that the term vibhajja-vāda is used as an epithet for Buddhism, and is used to represent the Buddhist way of thinking, is most likely because the Buddha referred to himself as an ’analytic speaker’ (a speaker of reason; vibhajja-vāda or vibhajja-vādī).⁶⁴ These two terms, vibhajja-vāda and vibhajja-vādī, as epithets of the Buddha or of Buddhism, have been cited throughout the history of Buddhism. For example, at the Third Recitation, the emperor Asoka asked Ven. Moggaliputta-Tissa Thera, the leader of the recitation, the question: ’What is the doctrine of the Perfectly Enlightened Buddha?’ The venerable elder answered: ’Your Majesty, the Perfectly Enlightened Buddha is a speaker of reason (vibhajja-vādī).’⁶⁵

In sum, one can say that vibhajja-vāda is a general term denoting the entire spectrum of Buddhist thought.

The term vibhajja means to ’separate’, ’divide’, ’distinguish’, or ’analyze’. Vāda means ’declaration’, ’speaking’, ’presenting a teaching’, ’system of teaching’, or ’doctrine’. Vibhajja-vāda thus translates as ’discerning speech’, ’discriminative speech’, or an ’analytic system of teaching’.

The distinctive attribute of this kind of thinking and speaking is to discern and to express the truth, by analyzing all aspects and features of specific phenomena. One does not grasp onto a single aspect or a limited number of aspects and then draw an imprecise, approximate conclusion, nor does one hastily judge the value or goodness of something by looking at a single perspective or at limited features. {661}

Speech that is the opposite to vibhajja-vāda is called ekaṁsa-vāda, which translates as ’one-sided speech’. Here, one looks at only one aspect, side, or part of a phenomenon and then draws a conclusion about the object in its entirety, or one speaks based on stereotypes.

Analytic reflection (vibhajja-vāda) can be divided into different ways of thinking:

Reflecting on Perspectives of Truth

This way of thinking can be subdivided into two factors:

1. To distinguish various aspects of an object as they truly are; to discern or describe the truth as it manifests in those aspects; to abstain from grasping onto limited features of an object and then drawing an incomplete assessment of it. For instance, when one describes another person as being good or bad, one points to specific facts, by saying: ’In such areas, aspects, and circumstances he is good or bad.’ One refrains from making simple generalizations. If one judges the value of something, one determines which aspects to focus on; one then considers these aspects and makes a relative assessment. An example of this kind of analysis is found in the teaching on the ten kinds of householders, which will be discussed below.

2. To discern or describe the truth of an object based on all of its features. When one looks at or considers an object, one is not blinkered; one is not stuck at one aspect or part of it; nor does one judge something based on limited features; instead one looks at something from all angles. For example, when one judges something as good or bad, one says: ’It is good in these ways, these aspects, these situations; it is not good in these ways, aspects, or situations.’ Although this second factor appears similar to the first, it is distinct; moreover, it reinforces and completes the first factor. Examples of this kind of analysis are the teaching on the ten kinds of householders and the teaching on praiseworthy and blameworthy monks, both forest monks and village monks.⁶⁶

This way of thinking leads to an understanding of how various factors or attributes gather together into an integrated whole, thus giving rise to a particular phenomenon or event, and it leads to a broad discernment of things or events, by seeing how these things are composed of various factors.

Reflecting on Component Factors

Here, one analyzes an object in order to gain a thorough understanding of it, as something that exists as a collection of subsidiary factors. One is not stuck on external appearances, nor is one deceived by the overall image of an object. For example, one separates a person into body (rūpa) and mind (nāma), or into the five aggregates, and further analyzes each factor until one sees the characteristic of nonself. This is the path to fully comprehending the truth of conditioned phenomena.

This form of analytical thinking (vibhajja-vāda) is the same as the second kind of reflection (the method of analyzing component factors) described earlier in this chapter, so it is not necessary to expand on it here. The term vibhajja-vāda was not originally used to denote an analysis of component factors, but authors of later texts used it in this broader sense,⁶⁷ and thus I have included it in this discussion. {662}

Reflecting on the Sequence of Momentary Events

Here, one analyzes phenomena according to the succession of causes and conditions, by separating events into distinct ’moments’ (khaṇa), in order to see the actual causes and conditions leading to a specific phenomenon.

This way of thinking is one part of the reflection on component factors and of the reflection on the relationship between causes and conditions (see below), but it has some unique characteristics and application, and is therefore given a distinct classification. It is applied frequently in the study of the Abhidhamma.

Take for example the case of a thief breaking into a house and killing the owner. Generally, people will say that the thief murdered the person because of greed – because of a desire for the wealth in the house; the cause for the murder is greed.

This explanation is a simplified way of speaking. When one investigates the true dynamics at play in the thief’s mind, one sees that this explanation is inaccurate. It is not possible for greed to be a cause for killing; anger, rather, is the cause for killing. By analyzing the sequence of momentary events, one sees that the thief covets the wealth, but the owner is an obstacle for obtaining it. Greed for the wealth is thus the cause for the thief to be angry at the owner. The murder is committed because of this anger.

The thief covets the wealth – he does not covet the owner of the wealth. Greed is not the real cause of the murder; it is simply a cause for stealing. And it is a condition giving rise to anger towards that which gets in its way or does not support its objectives.

In everyday parlance it is fine to say that the thief killed the person out of greed. But it is important to understand that according to the true sequence of momentary events, greed is simply a root cause or an initial agent in that situation. This analysis or investigation of momentary occurrences is the reason why Buddhism in later periods has been referred to as a ’doctrine of momentary events’ (’doctrine of change’; khaṇika-vāda).

Reflecting on the Interrelationship of Causes and Conditions

Here, one traces the various interrelated, connected causes and conditions of an object or phenomenon. This investigation gives rise to an understanding that things do not arise and exist at random; they do not exist independently from other things; they are not self-sufficient, but rather depend on causes and conditions. They cease to exist and are transient because their causes and conditions likewise cease.

This vital form of thinking corresponds to the first kind of reflection mentioned above, of investigating causes and conditions, or thinking in line with ’specific conditionality’ (idappaccayatā). Besides having described this way of thinking earlier in this chapter, it was also explained at length in the chapter on Dependent Origination.

Thinking that lacks this awareness of the relative nature of things leads people to various forms of extreme views. For example, they hold to an eternalist view, believing that there exists a true, eternal soul, or to an annihilationist view, believing that the ’self’ exists temporarily but then is extinguished and disappears. When one neglects to see the interrelationship of causes and conditions, one sees things as absolute and in isolation, which results in extreme views.

Things, however, do not exist in an absolute sense as generally interpreted by people. All things are interrelated, interdependent, and interconnected on account of subsidiary factors. The existence or non-existence of a thing is not definite or absolute. The truth of the matter is somewhere in the middle, between the two aforementioned extremes. This way of reflection helps one to discern this truth. {663}

According to this way of thinking, the Buddha proclaimed an ’objective’ or ’middle’ teaching. He did not say, ’This exists’ or ’This does not exist’, but rather stated: ’Because this exists that also exists; because this does not exist, that too does not exist’, or: ’This exists when that too exists; this does not exist when that does not exist.’

This principle of truth is referred to as ’specific conditionality’ (idappaccayatā) or ’dependent origination’ (paṭiccasamuppāda), and the teaching of this truth is called the ’middle teaching’ (majjhena-dhammadesanā). This way of thinking can thus be called reflection corresponding to the middle teaching or reflection in line with the ’middle truth’ (majjhena-dhamma).

Besides preventing one from seeing things or problems in an isolated, absolute sense, and helping one to think in a smooth, unobstructed way, a reflection on the relationship between causes and conditions helps one to recognize and match causes and conditions with their respective results.

This subject matter is connected to three common areas of confusion for people:

First, people often mix up matters external to an event with those causes and conditions specifically related to it. For example, in the case that an immoral person reaps some kind of reward that is generally considered to be good, some people will raise the question why someone else who is virtuous, who has many good qualities, does not receive this good fortune. The truth of the matter is that the specific virtuous qualities of this good person may not be of the kind that generates the aforementioned reward. This kind of reflection helps to distinguish unrelated matters or conditions from those causes and conditions directly pertaining to a specific circumstance. One accurately sees the relationship between results and their causes.

Second, people are often not aware of how different causes and conditions can lead to similar results, and how the same causes and conditions may not always lead to the same results. For example, the Buddha encouraged some monks to live alone in the forest, while for other monks he discouraged this. He reflected on the motive (the ’cause’), that is, the specific monk’s intention.

The acquisition of wealth may result from diligence and hard work, from pleasing a wealthy donor, or from theft. A person may be praised because he acts virtuously in a society that honours virtue, or he may be praised even as a result of doing bad actions, if they satisfy someone else’s desires.

In these situations it is necessary to recognize how these variant causes and conditions giving rise to similar results also generate other, distinct results which one may not have taken into account.

Similarly, two people may perform the same good actions. The first person is praised because he lives in a place where people honour goodness, or his actions are advantageous to those offering the praise. The second person, however, is not praised, because he lives in a place where such goodness is not esteemed, or his actions threaten the personal interests of others, or else he possesses some personal faults.

In these situations it is also important to realize that the causes and conditions being considered are not the sole causes and conditions giving rise to the specific results. The environment and other factors are also accompanying conditions, which determine the arising or non-arising of these results. {664}

Third, people often do not realize the special causes and conditions additional to those similar causes. This is connected to the second factor, above, that is, people generally only acknowledge those things that they reckon will produce specific results. For example, when they see two people act in the same way, after which one person receives a desired result while the other person does not, they conclude that this action (this ’cause and condition’) does not produce dependable, trustworthy results.

There may be a case when two people, who are both equally good at a job, are eligible for promotion. It is natural that only one of these two will be selected. If the selection is not made by casting lots, other conditions will come into play; one person may be healthier, have a better physical appearance, or be more intelligent, for instance.

The examples given here in reference to these three areas of confusion are connected to the law of kamma, to people’s volitional actions and their results, but other examples having to do with general laws of cause and effect would be equally applicable.

Reflecting on Prerequisites and Qualifications

This commonly encountered form of analytical reflection refers to discerning or expressing the truth by considering accompanying prerequisites and qualifications. For example, in the case that these questions are posed: ’Should one associate with these people or not?’ or ’Should one frequent this place or not? – if the person who answers is a monk, he may answer in accord with the Pali Canon and say: ’If by associating with such persons or places unwholesome states increase and wholesome states decrease, then one should avoid them, but if wholesome states increase and unwholesome states decrease, one should seek them out.⁶⁸

In answer to the question: ’Should a monk observe the austere practices (dhutaṅga)?’ – someone who knows the Dhamma well will say: ’If a monk’s meditation improves, then he should observe these practices; if it deteriorates, then he should not. If a monk’s meditation improves regardless of whether he observes these practices or not, and if he wishes to assist later generations, then he should observe them. If a monk’s meditation deteriorates regardless of whether he observes these practices or not, he should observe them to establish a basis for his personal disposition.⁶⁹

If someone were to ask whether the Buddha is a proponent of annihilationism (uccheda-vāda), by answering according to the Buddha’s own words, one would say: ’If you are using this term in this definition, then “yes,” but if you are using it in this other definition, then “no”.’⁷⁰ Similarly, if someone were to ask whether a monk who likes to live in solitude and to wander alone can be called one who practises correctly according to the Buddha’s teachings, one would need to answer by stating certain qualifications.⁷¹

Taking an example from modern studies of education, the question comes up whether to allow children to encounter particular social influences, like news or shows broadcast by the media, without any supervision, or to what extent they should be supervised. If one answers with analytical reflection, one does not speak rashly or in an ill-considered way, but rather examines this matter by taking certain conditions into account, for example:

• Proclivities, skills, habits, and traits that a child has accumulated through his or her education and nurturing, as well as cultural influences present at that time. Technically speaking, this refers to wholesome and unwholesome ’volitional formations’ (saṅkhāra): habitual ways of thinking. In short, this refers to the child’s disposition. {665}

• To what extent is the child able to apply wise reflection (yoniso-manasikāra)?

• Virtuous friends (kalyāṇamitta): does the child have a person or other means of support for offering advice on important matters, for example by pointing out correct ways of examining things or by helping to generate wise reflection? These virtuous friends may exist in the child’s family or community, or they may exert an influence by way of the media.

• To what extent are those things which the child is exposed to provocative, offensive, or seductive?

All four of these factors are variables, but in this case we may hold the fourth factor to be constant. The answers to the aforementioned questions are relative. For example, if the child applies wise reflection, or he or she has access to a truly capable virtuous friend (especially by way of the media itself), or his or her wholesome way of thinking instilled by family or culture is firmly established, even if the child is exposed to a great deal of stimulation and allurements, it will be difficult for these to cause problems and they may even generate positive results.

If, however, an inclination to think in wholesome ways has not been cultivated, the child has not been trained in wise reflection, and he or she has not been equipped with a virtuous friend, abandoning children to these influences causes problems for them and is tantamount to giving them mental poison.

Reflecting on Alternatives and Other Possibilities

When trying to achieve something or to reach some goal, or when trying to understand the existence of some phenomenon, a person should be aware of the following things:

• There may be many ways to reach this goal, or there may be different possibilities for this phenomenon to exist.

• Of these different methods or possibilities, some of them may be better, more effective, or more decisive than others.

• Of these different methods, some of them, or one of them, may be more appropriate or effective for oneself, for other people, or for particular situations, than other methods.

• There may be one or several methods to achieve this goal, or one or several possibilities for something to exist, but it may be different from the method that one currently practises, or different from the possibility one currently perceives.

This awareness has many benefits: it keeps one from getting stuck, turning in circles, and finding no way out in respect to fruitless, incorrect, or inappropriate ways of practice or thought patterns; and, when one acts or thinks in ways that are unsuccessful, it prevents one from giving up out of discouragement or a sense of helplessness.

Most importantly, it enables one to search for and discover methods or possibilities that are correct, appropriate, precise, practical and effective.

An example of this way of reflection can be seen in the life account of the Buddha. When he endeavoured as a bodhisatta to practise the severe austerities, which were considered an ideal at that time era, with all his strength and to an extreme, he was unsuccessful. Instead of getting frustrated and despairing, he recognized that this is not the correct path for reaching the goal and then reflected further. {666}

At that time he had this thought:

After having this thought, he discovered the Middle Way, which he practised until reaching the knowledge of awakening (bodhi-ñāṇa).

Detailed Analysis as a Response to Questions

Detailed analysis (vibhajja-vāda) appears frequently in the scriptures as a response to questions, and is classified as one of the four responses to questions. Applying detailed analysis to answer a question is given the special term vibhajja-vyākaraṇa: ’analytical explanation’.

Here are the four ways of answering a question (pañhā-vyākaraṇa):

1. Ekaṁsa-vyākaraṇa: to answer from a ’single perspective’; to answer in a decisive, categorical sense.

2. Vibhajja-vyākaraṇa: to answer by detailed analysis.

3. Paṭipucchā-vyākaraṇa: to answer by posing a question in return.

4. Ṭhapana: to refrain from answering; to desist; to dismiss the question.

These four kinds of answers correspond with four kinds of questions, which are listed here along with simple examples given in later texts:⁷²

1. Ekaṁsavyākaraṇīya-pañhā: questions that should be answered decisively and categorically. For example, to the question: ’Is the eye impermanent?’ – one should answer absolutely and directly: ’Yes.’

2. Vibhajjavyākaraṇīya-pañhā: questions that should be answered by way of analysis or categorization. For example, to the question: ’That which is impermanent is the eye, correct?’ – one should answer: ’Not only the eye; the ear, nose, etc. are also impermanent.’

3. Paṭipucchāvyākaraṇīya-pañhā: questions to be answered by questions. For example, to the question: ’The eye is the same as the ear, correct?’ – one should ask in return: ’Which aspect are you referring to? If you are referring to the faculty of seeing, then “No,” but if you are referring to the state of being impermanent, then “Yes”.’

4. Ṭhapanīya-pañhā: questions which should be dismissed and not answered. For example, to the question: ’Is the physical body (sarīra) the same as the life principle (jīva)?’ – one should desist from answering.

In respect to the first kind of question, it does not require an explanation, or it has no exceptions. It can thus be answered immediately and absolutely. Another example is the question: ’Everyone has to die, correct?’ – here one can answer immediately, ’Yes.’

The second kind of question has aspects that need to be explained by using the various kinds of detailed analysis described above.

In respect to the third kind of question, one should make inquiries in return, in order to seek clarity before answering. This method can be used in conjunction with the second kind of response, of answering by detailed analysis. {667}

In the Pali Canon the Buddha frequently uses this method of replying to a question with another question. By doing this, the questioner was gradually able to understand and answer his own question. The Buddha simply pointed out particular frames of reference or new perspectives, without needing to answer the question directly.

The fourth kind of question, to which one should desist from answering, refers to senseless, foolish, or absurd questions. Alternatively, it refers to those matters the questioner is not yet capable of understanding. Here, it is better to first instil a basic understanding of other matters. Later one may be able to speak about the original question, or else the person understands the matter by himself.

On a more subtle level are those questions incorrectly posed which stem from a misunderstanding and are incongruous with truth.⁷³ Examples from the Pali Canon include such questions as: ’Who cognizes?’ ’Whose cognition?’ ’Who experiences sense objects?’ and ’Whose feelings?’ One is unable to answer these questions in a way that the questioner desires, and thus it is better to dismiss these questions. One may explain the reasons for not answering,⁷⁴ or ask the questioner to reformulate the question so that it accords with reality.⁷⁵

Following are some passages from the Pali Canon describing ’detailed analysis’ (vibhajja-vāda):

Ven. Ānanda went on almsround and entered the house of the female lay disciple Migasālā, who said to him:

Ven. Ānanda acknowledged this question but he did not answer; instead he brought this matter to the Buddha. The Buddha explained that to understand this matter one must be able to distinguish between different kinds of people. (One must possess the knowledge that fathoms the superior and inferior qualities of different people – purisapuggalaparopariya-ñāṇa). {671}

The Buddha went on to describe six types of people, organized into three pairs, (and in a second sutta he describes ten types of people, organized into five pairs). In regard to each one of these pairs, the individuals share certain attributes (especially those connected to interpersonal or social relationships), but in other areas they have distinctive attributes (especially personal qualities which correspond with beneficial results).

Those who are judgemental will conclude: ’These two people have similar attributes. Why is one person more successful than the other?’ Such an assessment will lead to their harm.

By focusing on external attributes, Purāṇa appears to be superior to Isidatta, but their essential internal attributes are the same. They are both endowed with the same essential qualities in relation to virtuous conduct (sīla), and they are also endowed with the same level of wisdom.

A. III. 347-351; A. V. 137-8.

In a similar way, the Buddha divided householders – ’those who enjoy sensual pleasures’ (kāma-bhogī) – into ten types, and he described the positive and negative aspects of each of these types:

Group #1: Those who seek wealth unrighteously:

This kind of analytic reflection (vibhajja-vāda) leads to clear and precise thinking and discrimination, which accords and is commensurate with truth, and prevents confusion.

A simple example from everyday life is the observation that someone speaks directly, bluntly, and outspokenly, and is unable to speak in a sweet-sounding way; it appears as if he covers up his bluntness and abrupt speech in the cloak of frankness. If one analyzes this situation more closely, one can conclude that his candidness and directness is a virtue, but the abruptness and outspokenness is a fault.

Someone endowed with such qualities should acknowledge the deficiency in not speaking agreeably, rather than using directness as a pretext. If one wishes to bring virtue to fulfilment, one should make adjustments in those areas that are still faulty.

Similarly, someone who speaks in a pleasing, sweet-sounding way is endowed with such pleasant speech as a virtue, but it is another matter whether one speaks candidly. If one does, this is considered another virtue, but if one does not, then this is considered a fault.

In such a case, an additional factor which needs to be considered is whether this sweet-speaking person speaks with wholesome intentions or whether he speaks out of a wish to deceive, using a ruse. One should distinguish this factor with clarity, to avoid confusion.

In the case that one is looking to hire someone for a job, one chooses the candidate suitable to the job’s requirements – whether one needs someone who speaks pleasantly or someone who speaks directly. If the job requires a person who speaks pleasantly, one selects someone with this quality (of course the employer will also try to find someone who is honest). An outspoken person here needs not allude to his directness as a way to get this job. Likewise, if the job requires a person who speaks directly, it is unimportant whether the candidate speaks pleasantly or not. The person not chosen for this job need not cite his soft-spoken, agreeable speech. Moreover, if one is making a psychological study, by looking at the relationship between directness and bluntness, or between sweet-sounding speech and deceit, one should be clear about those factors under investigation.

Analytic reflection (vibhajja-vāda) is precise and objective, corresponds with truth, and is aligned with natural laws. It is thus a model for those who wish to speak in a truly open and honest way.

There was a bhikkhu named Thera who lived alone and spoke in praise of the merits of living alone. He went to the village on alms alone, returned to his residence alone, sat in seclusion alone, and practised walking meditation alone. Many monks went to the Buddha to ask about this monk. The Buddha sent for Ven. Thera and conducted the following conversation:

Note that such excerpts from the Tipiṭaka demonstrating the Buddhist point of view in relation to analytic reflection can sometimes lead people to see only a limited and incomplete picture of Buddhism and to misunderstand it. For this reason, those people who attempt to describe the Buddhist teachings should cite scriptural passages with care. They should be able to distinguish between those teachings which express universal or general principles, and those which pertain to specific aspects or circumstances, or which have restrictions. They should provide a complete set of examples, or explain the relevant circumstances or qualifications, so that the reader or listener understands Buddhism correctly. {676}

Practical Application

Following on from the preceding descriptions of the various kinds of wise reflection, there are some miscellaneous points here to review and reemphasize.

By examining how wise reflection operates, one sees that it functions during two stages: first, when one cognizes sense impressions or when one experiences things from outside, and second, when one contemplates sense impressions or when one examines matters that one has stored up internally.

One of the noteworthy characteristics of cognizing things wisely is to simply know them accurately, and to provide mindfulness with useful data to use in one’s everyday life and activities.

In other words, one cognizes things for the benefit of mindfulness and wisdom. This differs from cognition that leads to misunderstanding, conflict, attachment, and mental corruption. One gains knowledge as a result of one’s experiences, rather than allowing experiences or sense impressions to dominate or delude the mind. Otherwise, instead of gaining knowledge in order to solve problems and to eliminate suffering, one accumulates mental defilement and intensifies suffering. These same principles also apply to the act of thinking and they help to distinguish a life conducted with wisdom.

Some people may complain that this so-called life of wisdom appears emotionless, barren, and insipid. A response to this is that emotions tend to dominate the lives of ordinary people almost continuously. Wise reflection simply eases peoples suffering and mitigates their problems. There is no worry that they will be void of emotions.

Someone who applies wise reflection successfully, to the extent of transcending the state of an ordinary person (puthujjana), develops the prominent, pure, and powerful emotion of true compassion, which augments a person’s goodness and kindness. Instead of such emotions as frustration, sadness, stress, loneliness, and worry, one feels more refined emotions like joy, delight, happiness, mental clarity and spaciousness, peace, and inner freedom.

Note that the two preliminary stages of the Middle Way – advantageous instruction from others and wise reflection – comprise the link between people and the world. They emphasize one’s external environment, before one enters upon the Noble Eightfold Path, which consists of internal factors.⁸⁸

Virtuous friendship (kalyāṇamitta = ’wholesome instruction from others’) highlights the correct relationship between people and and the world in respect to their community, and wise reflection highlights the correct relationship between people and the world from the perspective of the mind, that is, of the way in which one experiences sense impressions and the way in which one thinks. This latter factor refers to the way of wisdom, or of discerning things as they really are, as explained earlier.⁸⁹

The different kinds of wise reflection described above follow the presentations in the Buddhist scriptures. It is important that students of Buddhism not get stuck on these conventional formats or on a set terminology, but rather focus on the essential meaning of these teachings.

Note also that the principles of wise reflection are intended to be used in a practical way, offering continuous benefit to one’s life. They are not meant to be used only when one is faced with tricky matters for consideration or when one is in solitude. Rather they can be applied at all times. {677}

This process begins with one’s general relationship to people and to the world, and with the course of one’s thoughts and reflections when one experiences various things – of not creating suffering, generating problems, or causing harm. Instead, one’s thoughts and actions promote happiness for oneself and others, increase wisdom and other wholesome qualities, cultivate virtuous habits and personal attributes, foster knowledge of the truth, and tie in with a spiritual training leading to liberation.

Take for an example a young boy from a wealthy family sitting in a car along with his parents. At one point he looks out the window and sees a group of poor children dressed in rags. The boy is fascinated because he recognizes the difference between himself and those other children. His parents notice his interest and say: ’Those are filthy children; don’t pay attention to them.’

In such a circumstance the parents are equivalent to bad friends (pāpa-mitta), advising the child to think in an unwise manner and inducing unwholesome states like aversion and contempt. These negative feelings may develop into the boy’s general viewpoint towards poor people, or even into a bias against all people.

In the same kind of circumstances, however, another set of parents may say: ’Those unfortunate children. Their parents are poor and therefore they do not have any decent clothes to wear. We should try and help them.’

In this case the parents act as virtuous friends (kalyāṇamitta), helping to establish the child in wise reflection and inducing wholesome qualities like lovingkindness, compassion, and renunciation. These positive feelings may develop into the child’s outlook towards poor people and into his general perspective towards all people.

The same holds true in other situations. Take for example the way in which news is broadcast in the media, both in relation to good news and bad; the expressed attitudes and speech by adults is highly influential in shaping the thought patterns of children. If adults point out correct ways of thinking and a discernment that is aligned with truth and conducive to wholesome qualities, the spiritual growth of children will be greatly enhanced.

Food, clothing, textbooks, the road to school, and those people or events encountered on the way to school – all of these things can influence the thoughts and shape a wholesome or unwholesome response in children. Very important in this context, however, is the way in which the perspectives and values of children are moulded by the advice given to them by both virtuous and immoral companions, leading to either wise or unwise reflection.

As for adults, when they understand these principles they will be able to apply wise reflection to rectify negative attitudes and habits, even those which have been accumulated and compounded by unwise reflection for a long time.

Note also that in the same situation, where several people all apply wise reflection, the kinds and levels of wise reflection may differ.

Take an example connected to the two stages of tranquillity (samatha) and insight (vipassanā). One man sees the face of a beautiful young woman, but instead of focusing on the beauty of her face he sees it as consisting of skin and facial hair, along with the unattractive elements of grease, sweat and dust, and with bones and flesh beneath. In this way, lust does not arise in him. The wise reflection applied here is considered an aspect of tranquillity meditation (reflection on the repulsive – paṭikkūla-manasikāra), because the experience is of the repulsive quelling lust, leading to a peaceful mind.

A second man sees the same beautiful woman, but he sees her as a young person who ought to be looked after and cared for. He generates the feeling of lovingkindness, considering her like a younger sister or niece. The wise reflection applied here is also an aspect of tranquillity meditation (an expression of the divine abiding of lovingkindness), because it makes the mind peaceful and pure. {678}

A woman sees this beautiful woman and thinks: ’Her face is more beautiful than mine.’ She begins to feel envy and dislike. This is a form of unwise reflection, because it generates unwholesome states and causes suffering and anguish.

A third man sees this woman and sees her face as consisting of various physical parts made up of different elements; as a whole they are conventionally referred to as the face of this woman with such-and-such a name. This woman’s face is nothing more than a physical thing – it is impermanent, unstable, subject to change, existing according to causes and conditions, morally neutral; ultimately, it is neither beautiful nor repulsive. This kind of reflection is in line with insight meditation, because the person sees the object as it really is or according to the truth.⁹⁰

Wise reflection (yoniso-manasikāra) is the principal factor initiating spiritual training, or it is the pillar of wisdom development, especially in systematic or formal study. It should thus be given great importance. One should help people seek knowledge themselves, rather than try to ’educate’ people by telling them what to think or believe, which is often a misguided and fruitless effort.

To begin with one can develop educational methods and activities that encourage students to train in the two basic forms of wise reflection: the investigation of causes and conditions and the analysis of component factors.

When the students encounter situations requiring contemplation they can link these two kinds of reflection with the reflection in accord with the three universal characteristics and the reflection used to solve problems (reflection in accord with the Four Noble Truths). The other kinds of reflection then provide support as is suitable. With this guidance the students begin to apply wise reflection independently and progress in spiritual practice truly and correctly.

When teachers know how to incorporate wise reflection in their curriculum, even young children will develop a profound thinking and broad perspective. By looking at their notebooks and writing desks they will begin to see the interrelationship and interdependence between all things in the universe. They will discern that the arising and existence of one thing does not happen in isolation; it is inseparable from the existence of other things.

In answer to the questions, ’How did this desk come to be?’ ’What is required in order for this desk to come into existence?’ a child will trace back to the necessary causes and search for all the factors required in the creation of a desk, for example: wood, a saw, nails, a hammer, and human labourers. From these they will trace even further back, say from the wood to trees, and from trees to soil, water, rain, forests, climate and weather.

Besides giving rise to a clear understanding of subjects under consideration, and of all their related factors, a skill in wise reflection also leads to insight and realization which effectuates change even on the level of viewpoints and personality. For example, one realizes that to live well and experience true happiness one must respect other people and respect nature, and carefully protect and preserve natural resources. {679}

Those people skilled at wise reflection will look for and recognize those aspects of things that are beneficial, and apply them for wellbeing and prosperity in their lives at all times and in all circumstances.

Despite encountering poverty, illness, or misfortune, these people do not feel discouraged or helpless. Instead, these difficult and challenging experiences become the source of wisdom and other virtues. Indeed, one sometimes hears people say: ’It was good luck that I was born poor’ or ’It was good luck that I became so ill at that time.’ Similarly, there are stories in the scriptures of some people who hear the words of a madman and consequently realize the truth and are completely freed from mental impurity.

Conversely, some people, despite being born rich, physically beautiful, or with prestige, lack wise reflection. Instead of their apparent good luck acting as an asset or support for achieving true success with speed and convenience, it increases and intensifies craving, conceit and wrong view, along with fostering laziness, infatuation, and competitiveness. Their good luck is transformed into bad luck and they find no true fulfilment.

Most people have accumulated the habit over a long period of time of thinking in ways that satisfy craving, or thinking based on likes and dislikes, preferences and aversions. These different kinds of wise reflection help to train the mind to develop new habits.

Developing new habits may take a long time, because old habits have been accumulated for decades. But the effort is worthwhile, because wise reflection increases wisdom, solves problems, dispels delusion and suffering, and generates joy and luminosity.

Even if not perfected, wise reflection can still aid in fostering equilibrium and providing a way out when old habits lead one into trouble and to various forms of suffering; it helps one to turn towards safety and freedom.

Technically speaking, from the perspective of functionality, the various kinds of wise reflection can be classified into two types:

1. Reflection cultivating power of mind: this type of reflection aims for mobilizing virtuous, wholesome qualities; it emphasizes hindering or suppressing craving; it belongs to tranquillity meditation (samatha); its characteristic is generating the strength or degree of goodness to constrain or conceal the unwholesome; its results are temporary and dependent on time; it promotes spiritual preparedness and builds character; and it leads to mundane right view.

2. Reflection cultivating pure wisdom: this type of reflection aims for comprehensive knowledge of the truth or of reality; it emphasizes the eradication of ignorance; it belongs to insight meditation (vipassanā); its characteristic is illumination, of dispelling delusion or cleansing what is impure; its fruits are timeless or absolute; and it leads to transcendent right view. {680}

Appendix 1: Reflection in Accord with the Four Noble Truths and Reflection Based on Science

The Buddhist teachings describe many methods of wise reflection, which can be applied separately for different situations or combined and applied together for one specific situation.

In contemporary society, wise reflection is often referred to as the scientific method. One can also refer to the scientific method as ’analysis for solving problems’, which corresponds here with reflection in accord with the Four Noble Truths. Let us compare these two methods of reflection:

The Scientific Method has five stages:

1. Location of Problems

2. Setting up of an Hypothesis

3. Experimentation and Gathering of Data

4. Analysis of Data

5. Conclusion

This method includes the important function of investigating causes, which is intrinsic to the second stage. The hypothesis may be directly based on the conjecture of a specific cause, or a cause provides clear evidence for establishing an hypothesis. There are times, however, when the evidence does not clearly point to one distinct hypothesis, and therefore one must form many provisional hypotheses.

In the method of reflecting on and investigating the Four Noble Truths, the search for causes is designated as a separate stage. Moreover, the four truths are classified into two separate groups, as follows:

A. Natural processes (in line with nature): these stages are to be reached by knowledge – by reflecting on and knowing things according to the truth, which exists independently.

B. Methodology (of human beings): this stage needs to be practised and applied:

Here are these four stages in greater detail:

1. Recognition of Suffering: human beings experience myriad kinds of suffering, affliction, and difficulty, both physical and mental, both internal and external. A basic form of suffering, however, refers to those things that are oppressive because they thwart, oppose, and conflict with people’s desires and cherished ideas.

   Human problems or suffering comes in many different forms, according to various locations and time periods, and thus one must apply those solutions appropriate and specific to these conditions. The basic form of suffering referred to above, however, is inherently connected to human life and to human nature, regardless of whether one lives alone or with others. This suffering follows people constantly; it manifests and issues effects irrespective of whether people have solved those problems owing to specific times and places. Addressing this basic form of suffering is a regular and constant responsibility for people. The degree by which one rectifies this basic suffering will have an effect on every other kind of suffering or difficulty – both their level of intensity and one’s ability to deal with them. Addressing this basic suffering is thus the most fundamental and supreme benefit for human life. Other suffering and difficulties must be dealt with at another stage, as suits the circumstances. {686}

2. Investigation of Causes (in order to envision the solution to problems): this stage of investigation is directly linked to the third stage of inferring cessation, i.e. the way in which one draws an inference to cessation depends on how accurately one apprehends the causes to one’s problems.

   Methods (A), (B) and (C) – see stage #3 below: here, one grasps the cause of suffering incorrectly, say by believing that one is experiencing inadequate amounts of pleasure; alternatively, one neglects to investigate causes altogether.

   Method (D): here, one understands that the cause of suffering is craving (taṇhā), or else one gains an even deeper insight into Dependent Origination (paṭiccasamuppāda), tracing the cause back to ignorance (avijjā).

3. Drawing an Inference to Cessation: one reckons that suffering ends by one of the following processes:

   1. By seeking sensual pleasure and indulging oneself to the maximum.

   2. By developing concentrative attainments (jhāna-samāpatti), according to the ’way of the yogis’ (yoga-vidhi).

   3. By developing extreme austerities and through self-mortification.

   4. By severing the cycle of Dependent Origination, dispelling ignorance, cutting off craving, being mindful, and conducting one’s life with wisdom.

4. Following the Path:

   • Path #1: esanā (’searching’; ’experimentation’): the Buddha practised and experimented with all four of the above methods of seeking the end of suffering. He also observed how people and societies live and exist when following each of these four methods.

   • Path #2: vīmaṁsā (’inspection’; ’analysis’): to analyze one’s observations and experimentation. The Buddha recognized (even before his great renunciation) that seeking sensual pleasures does not give true meaning to life or lead to what is essential; moreover, it leads to affliction. He saw that yogic practices lead only so far as various concentrative attainments, and that severe austerities create torment and affliction in vain. The path of wisdom, entailing the end of ignorance and craving, however, is able to eradicate the root of suffering and leads to true deliverance.

   • Path #3: anubodha (’awakening’; ’understanding’): one realizes that the way of sensuality and the way of severe asceticism are extremes (anta), while the way of the yogis results in getting stuck in the middle – by this latter way one does not yet reach the ’Path’ (magga). The correct and true course is the Middle Way, the Noble Eightfold Path, the way of wisdom – which begins with right view.

In Thailand, Dr. Saroj Buasri has already written about the comparison between the scientific method and the method in accord with the Four Noble Truths, for example in his book ’A Philosophy of Education for Thailand: the Confluence of Buddhism and Democracy’.⁹¹ This is praiseworthy work. However, because in the meantime there has been further examination and contemplation on this subject, I have introduced some different ideas.

I mentioned in an earlier chapter how the natural law of the three characteristics (tilakkhaṇa) and the law of Dependent Origination are in fact the same law, but described from different angles. Impermanence and inconstancy produce pressure and conflict, and thus it is natural for there to be fluctuation (aniccaṁ dukkhaṁ vipariṇāma-dhammaṁ). Yet this process occurs according to causes and conditions. Reflecting in this way expands the study of wise reflection to include the method of dialectics (vibhāsā-vidhi). It would be useful, however, to try and interpret the method of dialectics by applying the mode of detailed analysis (vibhajja-vidhi). This matter can be reviewed and considered by scholars when there is an opportunity.

Appendix 2: Dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti

Following are some definitions in the Pali Canon and the commentaries of the term dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti: to practise correctly, in an integrated fashion, without obstruction, and consistent with the goals of practice;⁹² to undertake the initial stages of practice consistent with the nine supermundane states (lokuttara-dhamma);⁹³ to undertake the initial stages of practice, along with virtuous conduct (sīla), consistent with the nine supermundane states;⁹⁴ to undertake the initial stages of practice along with virtuous conduct (sīla) to arrive at the goal: the transcendent state;⁹⁵ to practise the factors of insight (vipassanā-dhamma), which are consistent with the noble truth (ariya-dhamma);⁹⁶ to practise the path of insight (vipassanā-magga), conforming to the noble truth;⁹⁷ to follow the righteous practice conforming to Nibbāna – the transcendent state;⁹⁸ to develop the subsidiary factor of insight meditation (vipassanā-bhāvanā), conforming to the transcendent state;⁹⁹ the term dhammānudhamma refers to the Dhamma and all its minor parts (anudhamma);¹⁰⁰ dhammānudhamma refers to the parts of the Dhamma: those practices compatible with the Dhamma;¹⁰¹ the nine supermundane states are called the Dhamma, qualities such as vipassanā, for instance, are called anudhamma, and the practice suitable to the Dhamma is called anudhamma-paṭipadā.¹⁰²