Faith and Confidence

Introduction

The meaning, role, and importance of faith (saddhā)¹ in the Buddhist teachings is as follows:

Faith here does not mean handing over complete responsibility to something or someone without applying reasoned judgement. On the contrary; to do that would be an expression of emotional immaturity.

Faith is merely one stage – and the first stage – in the development of wisdom. Correct faith is connected to reasoned analysis: it must lead to and be validated by wisdom. It is the opposite to handing over complete responsibility or to a total entrusting oneself to something or someone else without applying reasoned judgement, which is an expression of simple emotionality (āvega) and leads people to stop making inquiries. Faith based simply on emotion is a form of gullibility; it should be amended and ultimately eliminated. Granted, the emotion stemming from a correct kind of faith can prove useful at early stages of Dhamma practice, but in the end it is replaced by wisdom.

The faith included in wisdom development is perhaps better defined as self-confidence: a person has a strong conviction based on critical reasoning that the aspired-to goal or ideal is both valuable and attainable. This faith inspires a person to validate the truth which he or she believes to be reasonably accessible.

To help define faith in a correct manner, all teachings in the Pali Canon containing saddhā in a group of spiritual factors also contain wisdom as an accompanying factor, and normally, faith is listed as the first factor while wisdom is listed as the final factor (see Note Factors Starting With Faith). Teachings emphasizing wisdom, however, do not need to include the factor of faith (see Note Factors Not Including Faith). {588}

Because wisdom governs other virtues and is an essential factor, it is more important than faith. Even as a personal attribute, wisdom rather than faith is the decisive factor: those individuals who are most highly praised in Buddhism, like the chief disciple Ven. Sāriputta, are those who possess the greatest wisdom.

There are two distinct benefits to faith:

• faith conditions rapture (pīti), which gives rise to tranquillity (passaddhi), which in turn leads to happiness, then concentration, and finally to wisdom; and

• faith generates effort – the endeavour to undertake spiritual practice and to put to the test those things believed in by faith, in order to witness the truth for oneself, which eventually leads to wisdom. (See Note Faith as a Supporting Condition)

Although these two benefits stem from an emotional basis, the process leading to their culmination must always contain an inherent aspiration for wisdom.

As the purpose of true faith is to support wisdom, faith must promote critical discernment, which leads to wisdom development. And faith itself is well-grounded and secure only when a person has established confidence and dispelled doubts through rational inquiry and understanding. In Buddha-Dhamma, the quality of faith thus supports inquiry and investigation. The methods of appealing to others to believe, forcing others to accept a prescribed truth, or threatening disbelievers with punishment are all incompatible with this Buddhist principle of faith.

Faith and devotion to another person has drawbacks. The Buddha even encouraged his disciples to abandon devotion to himself, because such devotion is heavily invested with emotion and can become an obstacle to complete and perfect liberation.

Faith is not classified as a factor of the Path, because it is wisdom, guiding and validating faith, that is the necessary factor for progressing on the Path. Furthermore, those persons with great wisdom, for example the perfectly enlightened Buddhas and the Pacceka-Buddhas, begin the Path at wisdom, without passing through the stage of faith. The cultivation of wisdom need not always begin with faith – it may also begin with wise reflection (yoniso-manasikāra). Therefore, the Buddha inserted the concept of faith in the section on developing right view; he did not distinguish faith as a separate factor.

Even faith that passes beyond what is called ’blind faith’ is still considered incorrect if it does not reach the stage of inquiry and of aiming for clear vision, because it fails to fulfil its function. Spiritual practice stuck at this level is still defective, because it lacks a true objective.

Although faith is of significant benefit, at the final stages it must come to an end. The existence of faith indicates that the true goal has not yet been reached, because as long as one ’believes’ in that goal, it shows that one has not yet realized it for oneself. As long as faith exists, it reveals that a person still depends on external things, entrusts wisdom to external things, and has not reached perfect freedom. {589}

Faith is therefore not an attribute of an arahant; on the contrary, an arahant has the attribute of being ’faithless’ (assaddha), which means that he or she has directly realized the truth and no longer needs to believe in another person or in a rational explanation for the truth.

To sum up, progression on the Path is gradual, beginning with faith (saddhā), developing into a seeing or understanding in line with cause and effect (diṭṭhi), and finally leading to a knowledge and vision of the truth (ñāṇa-dassana). At the final stage, the task of faith is ended.

The importance and advantages of faith should be clearly understood. One should neither give faith too much value nor hold it in contempt, both of which have harmful consequences. A disparagement of faith reveals a misunderstanding of faith’s role. A person may possess a high degree of self-confidence, for example, but this may simply be a belief in one’s own mental defilements and manifest as conceit and egoism.

In relation to moral conduct (sīla), faith is a vital factor. It provides people with supportive principles that act as deterrents, enabling them to resist temptations and provocations and to abstain from performing bad actions.

Faith also provides a channel for thought. When people experience a sense impression that does not overwhelm the mind (does not exceed the power of the principles instilled by faith), the course of their thinking follows the path prepared by faith; thoughts do not stray in unwholesome directions. For people who are still subject to mental defilements, faith thus sustains virtuous conduct.²

Although faith has many benefits, if it is not accompanied by wisdom then it can be harmful and it can even hinder the development of wisdom.

In reference to wisdom development, it is possible to give a rough outline of the various stages of faith (before one reaches a consummation of wisdom), as follows:

1. One develops views based on sound reason; one does not believe in things simply because one has been told by others (in accord with the Kālāma Sutta – see below).

2. One safeguards truthfulness (saccānurakkha); one listens to the teachings, opinions, and doctrines of various parties with objectivity; one does not rush into making judgements about things that one does not yet truly know; one does not stubbornly insist that one’s personal knowledge and opinions represent the truth.

3. When one has listened to the teachings and opinions of others, has seen that they accord with reason, and has observed that the person who offers these teachings is sincere, unbiased, and wise, confidence arises. One accepts the teachings in order to continue an examination of the truth using reasoned analysis.

4. One contemplates and examines these teachings until one is convinced that they are true and correct; one feels deeply impressed by the truth that one has witnessed and makes effort to further one’s investigations in order to deepen a realization of the truth.

5. If one has doubts one hastens to inquire from others with a sincere heart; one inquires not to shore up one’s identity but in order to gain wisdom. Faith is consolidated by proving the truth of reasoned arguments. In this way the purpose of faith is fulfilled. {590}

The Buddha’s Words on Faith

The Kālāma Sutta offers a principle for establishing a viewpoint founded on reasoned analysis for all people, regardless of whether they already hold to a particular theory, teaching, or doctrine:³

In the case that people lacked an understanding of and a belief in a particular subject matter, the Buddha did not urge them to believe. Instead, he encouraged them to consider and judge the matter according to the causes and effects that they were able to witness for themselves. In reference to the subject of rebirth, for example, there is a passage at the end of the aforementioned sutta, which states:

In regard to people who did not follow a specific doctrine or religion, the Buddha would teach with kindness and in a neutral, objective manner. He would encourage the listener to contemplate the truth from an independent standpoint. He would not claim ownership of these teachings nor would he try and persuade people to show devotion to himself or to convert to ’Buddhism’.

The Buddha did not refer to himself or to a supernatural power as proof of the authenticity of his teachings, but rather he referred to the ’way things are’ and to the facts that people are able to see for themselves through their own wisdom. Moreover, the Buddha taught the basic principle of practice called the principle of ’certainty’ (apaṇṇakatā): in regard to those matters of which general people lack an understanding, whether this be those things referred to as supernatural or even common phenomena which are not clearly understood, one should choose a definite and certain course of action, rather than get caught up in speculation.

A famous example of this principle is found in the Apaṇṇaka Jātaka. Two separate caravans both needed to carry a heavy load of water in order to cross a desert. The first caravan encountered a goblin, transformed in the likeness of a man, who wished to deceive and devour them. Using phoney evidence, he told the members of the caravan that just ahead they would find an area abounding with pools and lakes. He thus told them to throw out all of their water, rather than carry it unnecessarily. The members of the caravan were delighted and poured out all of the water from their jars. But they found no water up ahead, grew weak, and were devoured by demons.

The members of the second caravan were similarly shown the spurious evidence of water, but they applied the ’principle of certainty’, reflecting: ’As long as we have not seen the truth of this matter firsthand, we shall not simply follow this logic or conjecture. What we know for certain is the water we are now carrying in our oxcarts. When we meet this alleged water source ahead, we can fill up our jars.’ By applying wisdom and relying on that which is directly discernible, this caravan was able to reach safety.⁵ {592}

This principle of choosing a definite and certain course of action may also be applied to Dhamma practice and in regard to subtle aspects of the mind (nāma-dhamma), as described in the Apaṇṇaka Sutta:

The following teaching by the Buddha reveals how knowledge still based on faith and logic remains faulty, still prone to error, and not a true realization of the truth:

In the following sutta the Buddha goes on to reveal a way of protecting or safeguarding the truth (saccānurakkha) – the means to conduct oneself in relation to personal views and beliefs and the way to respond to the views and beliefs of others:

The Buddha clarifies this proper conduct in another sutta. On one occasion the monks were discussing other people’s praise and criticism of the Buddhist teachings, and the Buddha explained thus:

In the previous sutta on safeguarding the truth (saccānurakkha), the Buddha goes on to describe the way of practice for realizing the truth (saccānubodhi) and for arriving at the truth (saccānupatti), which includes the arising of faith. This description explains both the importance and the limitations of faith:

Faith is vital for initial stages of spiritual practice. It is conducive to spiritual growth and when applied correctly it accelerates spiritual development.

For this reason, a person with superior wisdom but who lacks strong faith may attain to a spiritual goal slower than someone who has inferior wisdom but has ardent faith.¹⁰ When faith is placed on a righteous object, a person saves both time and labour, but when faith is placed on something unrighteous, it misleads and hinders a person.

In any case, faith as taught in Buddha-Dhamma is based on reasoned analysis and guided by wisdom, which prevents faith from being misplaced. If faith does go astray, it can be corrected because it is not a blind attachment; one is encouraged to continually examine the justification and validity of faith.

A lack of faith is an obstacle, which can interrupt and delay spiritual development, as confirmed by the Buddha:

A lack of faith and confidence, i.e. doubt and hesitation, are major obstacles for the development of wisdom and spiritual progress. In this case the required task is to dispel doubts and to establish faith.

The establishment of faith here, however, is not an acceptance of something or someone, or an entrusting oneself to something or someone, without honouring one’s own wisdom. Rather, a person should examine the situation with wisdom in order to clearly see the causal relationships between things; this will lead to confidence and an end of doubt.

In the following sutta, the Buddha describes this wise inquiry, and in this teaching the Buddha encourages people to investigate the validity of the Buddha himself: {597}

Doubts and hesitations, even about the Buddha himself, are not considered wrong or wicked; they are merely states of mind which need to be understood and dispelled by applying wisdom. And indeed, doubts can encourage people to increase investigation and inquiry.

When people announced their devotion to and faith in the Buddha, before bestowing approval the Buddha would examine whether their faith and confidence was based on reasoned consideration, as is evident in the following discussion between Ven. Sāriputta and the Buddha:

When handled correctly as an aid for spiritual progress, devotion to a particular person can be beneficial. But it also has drawbacks because it often turns into an attachment to the person and obstructs progress. First, here is a sutta passage outlining the advantages of devotion:

The disadvantages of devotion to an individual are outlined in this teaching:

When devotion and faith turn into a feeling of love, personal prejudice can impede the operation of wisdom, as demonstrated in this sutta passage:

Even devotion to the Buddha can be an obstacle for highest liberation when this devotion becomes personal, and the Buddha encouraged his disciples to abandon such love. At times he used rather extreme measures while teaching his disciples, as in the case of Ven. Vakkali, who was ardently devoted to the Buddha and wished to keep close to him at all times.

Towards the end of his life Ven. Vakkali was seriously ill and sent a message to the Buddha requesting to see him. The Buddha visited him and offered the following teaching:

Spiritual progress restricted to the level of faith is not stable or secure, because faith depends on external conditions and may weaken, as confirmed by this teaching of the Buddha:

When not developed to the stage of wisdom, faith is limited. It may lead to a heavenly rebirth but it cannot on its own lead to the final goal of Buddha-Dhamma, as confirmed by this teaching of the Buddha:

In the context of wisdom development, wisdom initially benefits from correct faith and then develops gradually until it reaches the stage of ’knowledge and vision’ (ñāṇa-dassana). At this stage it is no longer necessary to rely on beliefs and opinions because one knows and sees clearly for oneself, and therefore this stage transcends the domain of faith:

This sutta passage continues:

When a person has clear knowledge and vision, faith is no longer required: the person does not need to believe someone else. The Buddha’s disciples who had attained to outstanding qualities knew and spoke about these things without needing to refer to the Buddha, as is illustrated in the following conversation between the Jain leader Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta and the householder Citta, an eminent disciple of the Buddha proficient in Buddha-Dhamma:

Arahants, who have reached the highest degree of knowledge and vision, possess the attribute of ’faithlessness’ (assaddha):¹⁹ they do not need to believe anyone else on matters that they clearly see for themselves, as confirmed by this discussion between the Buddha and Ven. Sāriputta: {603}

These following passages by the Buddha highlight the vital significance of wisdom:

So long as the faculty of wisdom is absent, the other faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, and concentration, on their own or combined, cannot bring about enlightenment:

Preparation for the Middle Way

To sum up, ordinary people, who are not yet proficient in wisdom, require guidance and encouragement from others. For them wisdom development begins with the external factor of virtuous friendship, in order for faith to be established. (Faith here refers to the confidence springing from well-reasoned discernment.)

From here one reaches the function of internal factors, beginning with applying the knowledge on which faith is based in order to think independently from others in an analytic way. Such analytic reflection gives rise to right view and advances the development of wisdom, resulting eventually in clear knowledge and vision (ñāṇa-dassana). (See Note Three Kinds of Wise Reflection.)

Because faith (saddhā) is a very important factor, and when it is appropriate and used correctly it is compatible with analytical reflection, leading to wisdom and right view, let us review its practical dimensions:

1. On the level of virtuous conduct (sīla), faith is a basic principle, protecting one’s virtue, holding one back from acting immorally, and establishing one firmly in upright behaviour. Although one’s faith may not yet be accompanied by wisdom, it is still valid. Indeed, in many circumstances faith based on deep-seated beliefs is more effective on the level of moral conduct than faith based on wise reflection.

2. On the level of concentration (samādhi), faith is conducive to concentration. It leads to rapture and bliss, deep tranquillity, and an absence of restlessness and agitation, and it also leads to determined effort, courage, fearlessness, focused attention, potency, and stability. Although faith in this context is also based on deep-seated convictions rather than grounded reasoning, it too is valid.

   Although this faith based on beliefs is effective for these first two levels of practice, it has the disadvantages of leading to narrow-mindedness and an unwillingness to listen to others, and sometimes it is the cause for oppressing others due to one’s personal beliefs. And importantly in this context, it is not supportive to wisdom development.

3. On the level of wisdom (paññā), faith is conducive to wisdom, beginning with establishing mundane right view. From here it links with wise reflection in two ways:

   • First, faith is a channel enabling virtuous friends to point out how to think constructively – to encourage people to apply wise reflection (otherwise they may not be open to guidance and teaching).

   • Second, it prepares the foundation or context for some subjects of contemplation and independent reflection. Faith at this stage is clearly connected to wisdom; it is the most desirable form of faith. {681}

To ensure that faith supports wisdom in the process of analytical reflection (yoniso-manasikāra), there are several factors to bear in mind in regard to one’s practice vis-à-vis faith:

First, to have ’rational’ faith or to have beliefs accompanied by reasoned thinking. One’s faith is not of the kind that forces one to believe; the object of faith does not need to be accepted according to rigid stipulations or followed without giving an opportunity to reasoned discernment. One’s faith neither obstructs nor coerces one’s thinking, nor does it lead to an unwillingness to listen to others.²¹ Instead, it supports reasoned analysis and contributes to wisdom development.

Second, one’s behaviour is marked by saccānurakkha: a guarding or love of the truth. One is devoted to truth and one expresses one’s faith honestly and accurately. One has the prerogative to state one’s beliefs, for example by saying, ’These are my beliefs’, or ’I believe in that’, but one doesn’t use one’s faith as the decisive factor for determining truth. One does not insist that the truth accord with one’s beliefs or declare something that is merely a belief as the absolute truth; for example, instead of saying, ’This matter is this way!’ one declares, ’I believe that this matter is this way.’

Third, one uses one’s faith or one’s beliefs as a foundation for analytical reflection, giving rise to wisdom. In other words, faith is not an end in itself, but is rather an instrument or ladder leading to a higher goal: the objective of faith is wisdom.

This corresponds with the standard sequence of wisdom development:

Associating with virtuous people →
listening to the true Dhamma →
faith →
wise reflection, etc.

Following on from wise reflection is the arising of right view (sammā-diṭṭhi), which marks the advent of the Middle Way – the beginning of a virtuous, righteous way of life. {682}

The Triple Gem as a Conduit to the Middle Way

The Triple Gem – the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha – is a cornerstone for Buddhists. Generally speaking, taking refuge (saraṇa-gamana) in the Triple Gem is a symbol of being a Buddhist or a lay disciple. Even stream-enterers possess the attribute of being one with firm, unshakeable faith in the Triple Gem. It is thus worthy of study to determine how reverence for the Triple Gem fits into the practice of the Middle Way.

Both the respect for the Triple Gem expressed by going for refuge by general people and the unshakeable faith in the Triple Gem belonging to stream-enterers clearly indicate the prominent role of faith (saddhā) for Buddhists at initial stages of practice.

From what has been described above one can see that faith is part of the beginning stages of the Middle Way. In particular it helps to link people with virtuous friends (kalyāṇamitta) or wholesome instruction by others. The aim is to link faith with analytical reflection (yoniso-manasikāra), and most importantly for faith to lead to wisdom – to give rise to right view (sammā-diṭṭhi), which is the first factor of the Noble Eightfold Path and the Middle Way.

Here we can see the clear relationship between the Triple Gem and practice in accord with the Middle Way, in that faith in the Triple Gem is a conduit to the Middle Way.

To add to this explanation one should consider the four factors of stream-entry (sotāpattiyaṅga), also known as the four virtues conducive to growth in wisdom (paññāvuḍḍhi-dhamma):

1. Sappurisa-saṁseva: association with virtuous people; association with the wise.

2. Saddhammassavana: hearing the true Dhamma; learning what is correct and good.

3. Yoniso-manasikāra: wise reflection; proper attention; skilful consideration.

4. Dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti: practising minor principles of Dhamma consistent with major principles; practising the Dhamma correctly.

This group of factors is referred to by many other names, including: ’qualities conducive to the realization of the fruit of stream-entry up to the realization of arahantship’:

Association with superior persons (sappurisa-saṁseva) is equivalent to having virtuous friends (kalyāṇamitta). The Buddha is the supreme superior person and virtuous friend.²³ Associating with wise people and having virtuous friends leads to beneficial instruction by others (paratoghosa), that is, hearing or learning the Dhamma – true, wholesome teachings.

Systematic reflection of the Dhamma – reflection in line with the Dhamma – gives rise to wholesome qualities and to wisdom, which comprehends things correctly according to the truth. Moreover, it leads to a Dhamma practice that is authentic and true to the goal.

A correct practice of the Dhamma (dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti) culminates in the realization of stream-entry, all the way to the realization of arahantship. Those who have arrived at these noble realizations comprise the genuine Buddhist community. They are called the community of disciples (sāvaka-saṅgha) or the noble community (ariya-saṅgha), and they represent the ’Sangha’ in the Triple Gem.

In this sense one can describe the duties by Buddhists in relation to the Triple Gem as the following: to start with, one acknowledges the Buddha as a ’virtuous friend’; one then listens to and studies the Buddha’s teachings. From here one reflects wisely on these teachings, thus completing the two preliminary stages of the Middle Way – virtuous friendship and wise reflection – which are the prerequisites for right view.

When one sees things correctly according to the truth, one practices the Dhamma correctly (dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti) – one follows the middle path of practice (majjhimā-paṭipadā).²⁴ One completes this path with the attainment of arahantship, and is consequently a ’noble being’ (ariya-puggala) and a member of the noble Sangha. As a noble being one is able to assist others and to act as a virtuous friend one step down from the Buddha himself.

Furthermore, the Sangha is a model community or society, a gathering point of those who receive the benefits of having the Buddha as a virtuous friend and of following the path of righteousness (dhamma-magga). The Sangha is a source of virtuous friendship for others; it is a ’field of merit’ (puññakkhetta), increasing and spreading goodness in the world.

The Sangha is one of the mainstays of the Triple Gem. The inclusion of the Sangha in the Triple Gem reveals how much importance Buddhism gives to the involvement and participation by virtuous people in society, which is improved and elevated through a collective effort.

Internally, or in relation to the mind, members of the Sangha are safeguarded by their states of realization. Externally, or in relation to life in society, their safeguards are the formal discipline (Vinaya), communal harmony, and mutual friendship.

The relationship between these principles of the four factors of stream-entry, practice according to the Middle Way, and the Triple Gem can be illustrated thus:

1. Association with the wise (sappurisa-saṁseva) = virtuous friendship (kalyāṇamittatā) = the Buddha (as the supreme friend).

2. Hearing the true Dhamma (saddhammassavana) = wholesome instruction by others (paratoghosa) = the Dhamma.

3. Wise reflection (yoniso-manasikāra) = wise reflection = (one’s duty in regard to the Dhamma).

4. Practising the Dhamma correctly (dhammānudhamma-paṭipatti) = the Path (magga) = to enter into the noble Sangha. {684}

From what has been said above it is possible to provide a brief definition for the Triple Gem as follows:

1. The Buddha: the one who realized and taught the Dhamma, discovered the Path and revealed it to others, and acted as the foremost virtuous friend. He represents an ideal, confirming the goodness, capability, and wisdom that human beings can train in and develop in themselves, culminating in the attainment of the supreme state.

2. The Dhamma: the principles of truth and virtue which the Buddha discovered and taught. Faithful disciples should listen to, study, and contemplate these teachings with wise reflection, in order to correctly understand the truth, cultivate the Path, and reach spiritual fulfilment.

3. The Sangha: the community of individuals who practise according to the Path and who have reached success. Those people who trust that this community of awakened individuals is truly excellent should participate in building and joining this community by cultivating the Path and experiencing its fruits. Such practice begins with emulating the external traits and characteristics of noble beings – of moral discipline, communal harmony, and mutual friendship.

   Virtuous friendship, wise reflection of the Dhamma, and practice in accord with the Eightfold Path prospers and reaches fulfilment in a community which lives in accord with the principles embodied by this noble Sangha.

The Triple Gem is a refuge in so far as recollection of the Triple Gem reminds people to use correct methods for solving problems and ending suffering. One follows the teachings on the Four Noble Truths and walks the noble path (ariya-vīthi). At the very least, this recollection helps prevent one from doing evil, generates a determination to do good, builds confidence, dispels fear, and strengthens and brightens the mind. {685}

Appendix 1: Translating Pali Terms from the Kālāma Sutta

Attempting to translate the ten factors connected to belief contained in the Kālāma Sutta is one example of how difficult it can be to satisfactorily and accurately translate Pali terms and phrases. In this case, one of the reasons for this difficulty is that these phrases lack a verb form; they simply contain the term mā, which translates as ’do not’ (grammatically referred to as an ’interjection’ – nipāta). Let us look at the first three factors as an example:

• Mā anussavena (’do not … by way of holding to oral tradition’).

• Mā paramparāya (’do not … by way of a lineage of teaching’).

• Mā itikirāya (’do not … by way of hearsay’).

The problem here for translators is deciding which verb to place within the ellipsis. Traditionally, this problem has been solved by translating this phrase as: ’do not believe….’ For a closer inspection of this matter, one should examine Thai translated versions of the Tipiṭaka. When Buddhadhamma was first published in 1971, there existed only one Thai translated version: Thai Tipiṭaka: A Tribute to 25 Centuries of Buddhism, 2500 BE., which translates this phrase as yah yeut theu…. (อย่ายึดถือ – ’do not grasp’, ’do not assume’).

Questioning the accuracy of this translation, I examined the commentarial explanation for this phrase. In this context, the commentaries add the verb gaṇhittha, rendering the phrase similarly as ’do not grasp’, ’do not assume’.²⁵ {605} This interpretation is consistent with other commentarial texts (these ten factors are found in other suttas, e.g.: the Sāḷha Sutta and the Bhaddiya Sutta).²⁶ The commentaries to the Bhaddiya Sutta, for example, provide the same interpretation as mā gaṇhittha.²⁷

This indicates that the translators of the ’Thai Tipiṭaka: A Tribute to 25 Centuries of Buddhism, 2500 BE’. translated this passage corresponding to the commentarial explanations. Still not fully satisfied with this translation, I needed to consider the alternatives.

Besides wishing to convey the sense of these passages accurately, one reason why I endeavoured to find a suitable translation is because when Buddhadhamma was first published thirty-six years ago, Thai people had only just begun to hear about and discuss the Kālāma Sutta. (This sutta was already familiar among Westerners, who found it interesting and astonishing that here was a religion that told people to suspend belief – there is no obligation to believe. This interest then extended to Thai people.) But instead of applying this meaning for the pursuit of wisdom, many Thai people interpreted this teaching for the sake of casualness, glibness, or frivolity. Some people claimed jokingly or disparagingly that the Buddha taught people not to believe their teachers and mentors. (As a result, many teachers of Buddhism during that time period would try and emphasize that the Buddha’s teachings in the Kālāma Sutta do not mean that one should disregard one’s teachers.)

These were some of the issues involved in trying to find a suitable translation for these passages.

Besides providing accurate data and factual evidence on these matters, it is also important to allow readers to access the original information, along with related material, in the most complete way as possible, so that they can consider these matters independently. There is always the danger that the opinions by an author, or interpretations by a translator, conceal the original information, and that authors or translators inadvertently monopolize ideas.

In the case that authors or translators come up with new interpretations or translations, it behoves them to inform the readers of this and share with them the original data, so that the readers can distinguish between what is the original and what is new.

In regard to material within the Tipiṭaka, it is helpful and suitable to provide explanations from the commentaries and other texts. The more the better, because this will provide an opportunity for students of Buddhism to apply their own judgment in these matters. This corresponds with the principle of viewing the Buddhist scriptures as a source of knowledge rather than as texts requiring unquestioned belief.

(In this book in particular, whereby the aim is to describe the traditional Buddhist teachings, rather than to express personal interpretations, it is important to produce as much supportive data as possible. In the case that personal understanding and interpretations are expressed, these should be clearly distinguished from the source material, for example the words of the Buddha contained in the suttas.)

Because I hadn’t yet come up with a suitable alternative, I continued to use the translation yah yeut theu (’do not grasp’, ’do not assume’) contained in the ’Thai Tipiṭaka: A Tribute to 25 Centuries of Buddhism, 2500 BE’. and based on the commentaries, but with an explanatory footnote.

The original edition of Buddhadhamma (1971, contained within the Wan Waithayakon collection) contains this footnote: ’The term “do not assume” here is an interim phrase, as no adequate substitute has been found. Understand this phrase to mean “do not make a judgement or establish an opinion in an absolute, categorical way based on any of these factors alone”.’

A year later, in 1972, I began work on ’A Dictionary of Buddhism’ (พจนานุกรมพุทธศาสน์ ฉบับประมวลธรรม), which was first published in 1975. Here, in regard to the ten means for dealing with doubtful matters as contained in the Kālāma Sutta (kālāmasutta-kaṅkhāniyaṭṭhāna), I began to use an alternative translation, which seemed more satisfactory, namely: yah bplong jy cheua (อย่าปลงใจเชื่อ – ’do not (decisively) believe’, ’be not led by’). This translation does not conflict with the commentarial interpretation mā gaṇhittha. {606}

• Be not led by report (anussava).

• Be not led by tradition (paramparā).

• Be not led by hearsay (itikirā).

• Be not led by the authority of texts (piṭaka-sampadāna).

• Be not led by mere logic (takka).

• Be not led by inference (naya).

• Be not led by considering appearances (ākāra-parivitakka).

• Be not led by the agreement with a considered and approved theory (diṭṭhi-nijjhānakkhanti).

• Be not led by seeming possibilities (bhabba-rūpatā).

• Be not led by the idea: ’This is our teacher’ (samaṇo no garūti).²⁸

(In 1996 the Thai Tipiṭaka ’Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Edition’ was printed and for each of these ten factors the translators applied the phrase อย่าปลงใจเชื่อ, yah bplong jy cheua.)

In 1978 I began to work on the expanded version of Buddhadhamma (’Buddhadhamma: Revised and Expanded Edition’), which was first printed in 1982. Although many changes and additions were made to this expanded version, I did not change the translation of this phrase in the Kālāma Sutta according to the changes made in the Dictionary of Buddhism. (In contrast, the ’Dictionary of Buddhist Terminology’ – พจนานุกรมพุทธศาสน์ ฉบับประมวลศัพท์ – first published in 1979, contained the changes made in the Dictionary of Buddhist Teachings.) Instead, the volume ’Buddhadhamma: Revised and Expanded Edition’ contains the following footnote:

’The expression here อย่ายึดถือ (yah yeut theu) means to not make a judgement or establish an opinion in an absolute, categorical way based on any of these factors alone; it should be understood as corresponding to the expression อย่าปลงใจเชื่อ (yah bplong jy cheua). Moreover, one should not interpret this expression to mean that the Buddha taught his disciples to disbelieve these particular things and rather to believe in other things. The Buddha warned his disciples from being utterly convinced even by these highly inspiring qualities: one should not be too eager to believe in them and take them as the ultimate criteria for truth, as they may possibly be incorrect. He encouraged people to carefully reflect on these highly inspiring and credible factors with wisdom. Consider how much care we must take when we engage with other factors and people.’

Although I have provided these various translations along with the background on how they have been determined, this does not confirm that they are the most suitable translations. Students of Buddhism can refer to the information and source material presented here in order to increase their own understanding on this matter. In the same vein, if one encounters a more suitable translation for this phrase one should accept it with satisfaction.²⁹

Apart from learning about this specific subject matter, readers may gain an appreciation here for how complicated and difficult in can be to translate Pali terms and phrases contained in the Buddhist scriptures.

Appendix 2: Four Kinds of Faith

There is a group of factors established in a later period of time dividing faith / belief into four kinds:

1. kamma-saddhā: belief in kamma;

2. vipāka-saddhā: belief in the fruits of kamma;

3. kammassakatā-saddhā: belief that beings are the owners of their kamma;

4. tathāgatabodhi-saddhā: faith in the Buddha’s awakening.

Apart from tathāgatabodhi-saddhā (a term formed from the Pali saddahati tathāgatassa bodhiṁ), this group of four is not found in the Pali Canon or even in the commentaries. This collection of four is a compilation of teachings found in different locations, but they are not found in the Pali Canon as these specific terms.

For example, kammassakatā-saddhā is only found in the Pali Canon as kammassakatā-ñāṇa;³⁰ in the earlier suttas there is only kammassakatā.³¹ In the commentaries one finds kammassakatā-paññā³² and kammassakata-diṭṭhi,³³ but these concern matters of wisdom.

Kamma-saddhā and vipāka-saddhā are derived from teachings concerning kamma, which are usually associated with wrong view (micchā-diṭṭhi) and right view (sammā-diṭṭhi),³⁴ but these specific terms are not found in the Pali Canon. Even the expression ’believing in kamma’, which is one of the five qualities of a lay-disciple (upāsaka-dhamma), is translated from kammaṁ pacceti, which means focusing on achievement through action rather than relying on luck. This subject reflects the development of Buddhist thought and tradition later, post-canonical times.