The Law of Kamma

The Law of Kamma

Introduction

All of the Buddhist teachings, regardless of their name or title, are interrelated and part of a whole. They all point to the same truth and they all lead to the same goal. They are given different names in order to point out specific aspects of truth, or else they refer to the same thing but look at it from different angles, depending on the particular aim of the teaching. For this reason, certain Dhamma teachings or principles are subsidiary to a larger teaching, whereas others are equally important and cover the same subject material, but have unique formats and objectives.

The teaching of Dependent Origination (paṭiccasamuppāda) describes the entire process of human existence, and it encompasses all the other Dhamma teachings in a comprehensive way. It is a complete teaching. If one comprehends Dependent Origination, one understands the essence of existence or the entirety of Buddhism, as confirmed by the Buddha:

In any case, it is generally acknowledged that Dependent Origination is profound and extremely difficult to understand. Even explaining it is very difficult. For this reason there are almost no texts dedicated solely to explaining Dependent Origination. It is much more common to find texts that explain other divisions or principles of the Dhamma, which are part of the teaching on Dependent Origination.

Of these subsidiary teachings, perhaps the most frequently explained is that on kamma.¹ The reason for this is twofold: first, this is a subject that is of vital interest to people, and second, an understanding of kamma acts as a bridge to understanding Dependent Origination. Indeed, a thorough explanation of kamma is one method for making the task of explaining Dependent Origination somewhat easier.

Kamma is only one part of the process outlined in Dependent Origination, which can be divided into three distinct cycles (vaṭṭa): defilement (kilesa), kamma, and the fruits of kamma (vipāka). Dependent Origination describes the entire sequence of performing volitional actions (kamma) and receiving the consequences of those actions, beginning with mental defilement, which is the source of kamma, and culminating in the fruits of kamma (vipāka).

Having described the law of Dependent Origination, along with its component factors, it may seem unnecessary to present a separate explanation on kamma. One may claim that by understanding Dependent Origination one also gains a clear understanding of kamma. {235}

The exposition of Dependent Origination focuses on phenomena in a pure, absolute sense, and it provides a broad, comprehensive perspective of a natural process. It does not emphasize one specific aspect of this process. From a practical, everyday point of view, however, the part of Dependent Origination that is most pronounced, directly pertains to human behaviour, and is connected to human responsibility, is kamma. From this perspective, one can say that kamma is the chief factor or theme in Dependent Origination, and that the other factors simply support investigation.

If one chooses this approach of analysis, Dependent Origination appears in the form known as the ’law of kamma’.² And because there are many other crucial factors related to this subject, in later texts the law of kamma became the focus of study more than Dependent Origination. The discussion of kamma deals with human behaviour, which is relatively coarse, easily apparent, pertains to each immediate moment, and is suitable as the starting point of study.

Moreover, the explanation of kamma can be done at many different levels. One can explain it on a superficial level, describing cause and effect to an ordinary lay audience; one can describe unique human circumstances or activities in relation to kamma; or one can delve deeper into various mental processes and explain kamma in the context of Dependent Origination in its complete format.

It is for these reasons that a separate chapter has been dedicated to the subject of kamma.

Basic Understanding of Kamma

Kamma as a Law of Nature

Buddhism teaches the truth that all things, both animate and inanimate, both material and immaterial, both physical and mental, both internal and external – that is, all conditioned things (saṅkhata-dhamma) – exist according to causes and conditions; they are subject to mutual conditionality. This is a law of nature. The Pali term for such a law of nature is niyāma, which literally translates as ’fixed with certainty’, ’mode of certainty’, ’rule of certainty’, or ’possessed of a certain orderliness’. When specific causes and conditions are present, things must proceed in a certain fashion.

Although this law of nature possesses the uniform characteristic of mutual conditionality, it can be divided according to distinct attributes, which express various patterns or aspects of interrelationship and facilitate understanding. Based on a Buddhist line of thinking, the commentaries describe five distinct laws of nature (niyāma):³ {236}

1. Utu-niyāma: law of energy; law of physical phenomena; physical inorganic order; physical laws. This refers in particular to the external environment and to alterations in physical matter. E.g.: the weather and seasons; the fact that water, soil, and fertilizer assist the growth of plants; the fact that lotus blossoms open during the day and close up at night; the process of sneezing and coughing; and the fact that all things are subject to corrosion and decay. The focus by the commentaries here is on alterations induced by heat and temperature.

2. Bīja-niyāma: genetic laws; law of heredity; laws of reproduction; physical organic order; biological laws. For example: the fact that a specific plant will produce a specific fruit; a mango tree, for instance, will always bear mangos.

3. Citta-niyāma: psychic law; psychological laws; the laws of nature pertaining to the functioning of the mind. For example: when a sense stimulus contacts a sense base, cognition arises – the passive state of mind (bhavaṅga-citta) is shaken and interrupted, there is adverting of the mind (āvajjana), seeing, hearing, etc., acceptance (sampaṭicchanna), judgement (santīraṇa), etc.; specific mind states may be accompanied by certain mental concomitants (cetasika), whereas they may not be accompanied by others.

4. Kamma-niyāma: law of kamma; order of act and result; kammic laws; moral laws. Natural laws pertaining to human behaviour. More specifically, this refers to the process of intention and the process of conceptualization, along with corresponding results of these mental activities. For example: if one performs good actions, one reaps good results; if one performs bad actions, one reaps bad results.

5. Dhamma-niyāma: general law of cause and effect; order of the norm. The law of nature pertaining to the interrelationship and mutual conditionality of all things. For example: all things arise, are sustained, and come to an end; it is the norm that human beings are born, age, fall ill, and die; the normal lifespan of human beings at this time era is roughly one hundred years; regardless of whether a Buddha appears or not, it is part of the natural order that all things are impermanent, dukkha (’subject to pressure’), and nonself (anattā).

The first four kinds of laws are in fact included in the fifth law, of dhamma-niyāma, or one can say that they are divisions stemming from this law. The definition of dhamma-niyāma encompasses all five kinds of laws.

It is accurate to say that dhamma-niyāma is the chief, over-arching law. In this case, some people may argue that if one is going to list subsidiary laws in detail, then this list should be exhaustive. Why does dhamma-niyāma remain along with these four subsidiary laws?

This can be answered with a simple analogy. When the entire human population of a country is described, it may be divided say into ’government leaders, civil servants, merchants, and the general populace’, or ’soldiers, police, civil servants, students, and the general public’. Indeed, the terms ’general populace’ and ’general public’ can refer to all individuals in society. Civil servants, businessmen, soldiers, and students are all part of the general population. The reason why these individuals may be distinguished from the rest is because they have unique attributes, which the person making the division wishes to emphasize, depending on his or her objective. {237} On each occasion, the term ’general populace’, or a similar term, is used to incorporate all the remaining individuals. The description of the five natural laws can be viewed in the same way.

It is not our task here to examine whether other subsidiary laws should be added to this list. The commentators selected these five in accord with their own personal objectives. Moreover, the four subsidiary laws are all incorporated in the factor of dhamma-niyāma, as just explained. The point of interest here is to examine the true significance and purpose of describing these five laws. Here are a few points to consider:

First, this presentation provides a cogent view of the Buddhist way of thought, describing the causal nature of everything in the world. Although these five natural laws are distinguished from one another, the primary emphasis is on mutual conditionality. This provides Dhamma practitioners with a clearly defined principle for study, practice, and understanding. They need not get caught up in the debate whether a Creator God alters the natural flow of conditions, deviating from the norm (unless one considers that God simply participates like other conditions in the natural process).

Some people may object here and voice the opinion: without a Creator of these laws, surely they could not have come into existence? One need not get caught up in such questions, which only mislead and beguile people. If one accepts that things exist according to their own nature, then they must proceed in a certain way. Things have always proceeded in conformity with their naturally dictated course. It is impossible for them to proceed other than by mutual conditionality. Human beings observe and understand these patterns and proceedings and refer to them as natural laws. But whether they are distinguished and labelled as laws or not, they exist all the same.

If one insists that someone must have created the laws of nature, then one is faced with all sorts of troubling questions, like: ’What laws dictate the actions of the Creator?’ and ’Who supervises the Creator?’ If in reply one claims that the Creator acts entirely by his own will, then surely he is able to change the laws according to his whim. Some day, he may alter the laws and create chaos for human beings. (Indeed, if such a Creator of natural laws were to exist, and he is endowed with compassion, he would change some laws in order to assist people. For example, he would prevent the birth of handicapped, crippled, or mentally impaired people.)

Second, when one divides the law of causality into subsidiary laws, it is important not to attribute resultant phenomena as belonging exclusively and categorically to one particular law. In fact, a single result may arise from various causes or pertain to several laws in combination. The fact that a lotus blooms only during the day, for example, is not solely due to physical laws, but it is also due to biological laws. The reason why a person is crying may be due to psychological laws, say of being sad or elated, or it may occur due to physical laws, say of getting smoke in the eyes. Someone may be sweating due to physical laws, say because it is hot, or due to psychological and kammic laws, say because he is afraid or recalls doing something wrong. One may have a headache due to physical laws, say from muggy weather, a stuffy room, or a lack of oxygen, or due to biological laws, say from some defect in one’s body, or due to a combination of kammic laws and psychic laws, say from anxiety and distress.

Third, and most important, the commentaries reveal how the law of kamma is incorporated among these natural laws. {238}

In relation to human beings, kamma-niyāma is the most important of these subsidiary laws, because it is a matter that affects everyone directly. Human beings create kamma, which in turn determines their destiny.

Modern people tend to divide the various forces in the world, by setting nature in contrast with human beings. Following this division, kammic laws belong to the scope of activities belonging to human beings. All of the other subsidiary laws pertain to the sphere of nature.

Human beings are children of nature and are part of nature. But human beings possess a unique capacity, of operating under moral or kammic laws (kamma-niyāma). They form communities and invent things by way of their volitional actions, almost creating a separate or parallel world to that of the natural world.

Within the sphere of kamma-niyāma, the essence or core of kamma is intention or volition. The law of kamma embraces the entire world of intention or the world of creativity (and destruction) arising from human beings’ ingenuity and innovation. Kamma-niyāma is the prevailing law for human beings, regardless of whether they engage with other laws or not. Indeed the very engagement with other laws depends on the law of kamma.

The domain of volitional activity enables human beings to influence, alter, and create things. More accurately, the participation by people as one cause and condition within natural processes, to the extent that they claim to be able to control or defeat nature, is dependent on the law of kamma. People intentionally engage with other laws existing within the sphere of nature, studying them and acting accordingly, or deriving benefit from them. For this reason it is said that intention determines and shapes the natural world. Furthermore, human intention determines social interactions.

Besides shaping social interactions and behaviour in relation to external things, the environment, and nature in general, human beings, or more accurately, human intentions, have an effect on people themselves, shaping their personalities and determining their fate.

The law of kamma encompasses the world of intention and all forms of human creativity. It is the key factor in moulding each individual’s life. It determines the course of human society and all human creative and destructive activities. It is the basis on which people engage with other laws, in order to control the natural world. For this reason, great emphasis is given in Buddhism to the principle of kamma. The Buddha said: ’The world exists according to kamma’ (kammunā vattatī loko).⁴ Kamma is thus a vital teaching in Buddhism.

The inclusion of kamma-niyāma in the group of five laws also indicates that the law of kamma is simply one of several laws of nature. Therefore, when a phenomenon occurs, or when someone experiences some form of affliction, do not wrongly presume that it is solely due to kamma.⁵ {239}

The Buddha’s quote (above), ’The world exists according to kamma,’ refers to the world of living beings, or to the world of human beings. In other words, kamma governs and determines human society.

In sum, kamma-niyāma is a subsidiary law of nature, but it is the most important law for human beings.

Apart from the five aforementioned laws, there exists another law pertaining exclusively to human beings. It is not inherent in nature nor is it directly connected to nature. This refers to those laws and conventions set down by human beings themselves, in order to regulate social behaviour and to promote social wellbeing. These social prescriptions include policies, rules, pacts, legislation, traditions, customs, disciplinary codes, etc. One may affix this sixth law as an appendix to the five laws of nature mentioned above.

For the sake of convenience, one may designate a similar heading for this group of social prescriptions to those laws of nature. Yet one needs to be aware that this so-called ’sixth law’ lies outside and apart from the group of five natural laws. There are many such headings to choose from, including: saṅgama-niyāma (’social law’), saṅgama-niyamana (’social practice’), sammati-niyāma (’conventional law’), and paññatti-niyāma (’prescribed law’).⁶

All four of these example headings make it clear that they are referring to human laws rather than to natural laws. The first two terms refer to social prescriptions. The third term refers to human conventions, to those mutual agreements established in society. The fourth term refers to human prescriptions and stipulations.

Here, in this text, the term ’conventional law’ (sammati-niyāma) is used to refer to these human-made laws.

These social criteria and guidelines are fashioned by human beings. They thus result from intentional actions and are related to the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma). Yet they are supplementary to the law of kamma – they do not constitute kamma-niyāma per se. They are not characterized by mutual conditionality, nor are they aspects of natural truth in the way that kamma-niyāma is. Because they overlap with the law of kamma, the difference between the two tends to cause confusion, which in turn leads to numerous debates and misunderstandings among people.

Because these two kinds of laws – the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma) and conventional laws (sammati-niyāma) – have the greatest bearing on human beings, it is important to point out their distinctive attributes.

First, kamma-niyāma is a law of nature dealing with human actions. Conventional or social laws are established by people themselves. They are related to the laws of nature only to the extent of being a result of human intentional activity. Second, by way of the law of kamma, human beings are accountable to their actions according to the dynamics of nature. In the context of social laws, however, people must take responsibility for their actions according to the decrees formulated by people themselves.

These aspects of kamma will be discussed at more length in later sections of this chapter, on questions of good and evil, and on matters concerning the reaping of results stemming from intentional actions. {240}

Definition of Kamma

The term ’kamma’ literally means ’action’ or ’work’. In the context of Dhamma teachings, however, the definition is restricted to mean ’actions accompanied by intention’ or ’volitional actions’.⁷ Actions that occur without intention are not classified as kamma in this context.

This definition of kamma, however, is very broad. To truly understand the meaning of this term, its definition should be examined from different angles or presented as different layers of meaning:

It is noteworthy that in the modern time this is the most common interpretation of kamma, especially in reference to past actions.

Similarly, in the Aggañña Sutta:

Similarly, in the Cakkavatti Sutta:

Although one may define kamma into these four distinct categories, one should remember that in each case intention (cetanā) lies at the heart of such actions. Intention leads people to engage with things and determines the manner of such engagement. It determines how people respond to things and how they alter or improve things. It determines whether one makes oneself a channel for expressing unwholesome qualities of greed, hatred, and delusion, or instead for expressing wholesome qualities in order to foster true wellbeing. All this is under the power of intention.

Actions free from intention do not effect results within the domain of the law of kamma – they are not classified as kamma. Rather, they are matters pertaining to other laws of nature, in particular to physical laws (utu-niyāma). They are seen as equivalent to landslides or to a branch falling from a tree.

Kinds of Kamma

From the perspective of its quality or source, kamma is divided into two factors:¹²

1. Unwholesome actions (akusala-kamma): unskilful actions; bad actions. This refers to those actions stemming from unwholesome roots, i.e. greed (lobha), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha).

2. Wholesome actions (kusala-kamma): skilful actions; good actions. This refers to those actions stemming from wholesome roots, i.e. non-greed (alobha), non-hatred (adosa), and non-delusion (amoha). {243}

If one divides kamma according to the ’doorway’ (dvāra) by which actions are performed – the pathways of expression – the classification is threefold:¹³

1. Physical actions (kāya-kamma): actions by way of the body.

2. Verbal actions (vacī-kamma): actions by way of speech.

3. Mental actions (mano-kamma): actions by way of the mind.

Combining the two aforementioned classifications results in six kinds of kamma: unwholesome physical, verbal, and mental actions, and wholesome physical, verbal, and mental actions.¹⁴

Another classification divides kamma into four factors according to the relationship actions have to their results (vipāka):¹⁵

1. Dark actions with dark results: this refers to physical, verbal, and mental volitional formations (kāya-saṅkhāra, vacī-saṅkhāra, and mano-saṅkhāra) that are harmful and oppressive. Basic examples include: injuring other creatures (pāṇātipāta), stealing (adinnādāna), sexual misconduct (kāmesu-micchācāra), lying (musāvādā), and heedlessly indulging in alcoholic beverages.

2. Bright actions with bright results: this refers to physical, verbal, and mental volitional formations that are neither harmful nor oppressive. An example is upholding the ten wholesome courses of action (kusala-kammapathā).

3. Bright and dark actions with bright and dark results: this refers to physical, verbal, and mental volitional formations that are partly harmful and partly non-harmful. Most human behaviour falls under this category.

4. Neither bright-nor-dark actions with neither bright-nor-dark results: this refers to those actions performed in order to bring an end to kamma, i.e. intention aimed at abandoning the three aforementioned kinds of kamma. In terms of spiritual qualities, this refers to the seven factors of enlightenment (bojjhaṅga) or to the Noble Eightfold Path.

The commentaries contain another classification of kamma, into twelve factors, i.e. into three groups of four factors. This classification was favoured by later generations of Buddhist scholars, as is seen by the description in the Visuddhimagga. To prevent confusion, however, it will not be presented here.¹⁶

Of the three kinds of kamma mentioned above, i.e. physical, verbal, and mental kamma, mental kamma is of the greatest importance and has the most widespread and major consequences, as confirmed by the Buddha:

Mental kamma is the most important because it is the point of origin. People think before they speak or act; they think before they express themselves by way of speech or physical actions. Verbal kamma and physical kamma are thus extensions of mental kamma. Moreover, mental kamma encompasses beliefs, opinions, doctrines, ways of thinking, and values, which are collectively referred to as ’view’ (diṭṭhi).

View (diṭṭhi) determines people’s general conduct and lifestyle, as well as the direction of society. People’s thoughts, speech, teachings, instructions, actions, etc. all spring from their beliefs, viewpoints, and values. {244} If people harbour wrong view (micchā-diṭṭhi), their thoughts, speech, and actions will also be incorrect (micchā); if they harbour right view (sammā-diṭṭhi), their thoughts, speech, and actions will be correct (sammā).¹⁷ For example, if a society believes that material affluence is of utmost value and truly desirable, people will pursue material wealth, and they will use wealth as the yardstick for measuring progress, prestige, and dignity. People’s lifestyles and the direction of society will follow a particular mode or format. Another society, which considers spiritual peace and happiness to be the highest goal will follow another mode of behaviour.

There are many teachings by the Buddha expressing the significance of wrong view and right view, for example:

Criteria for Good and Evil

Good and Evil

The subject of kamma is directly related to the subject of good and evil. To understand kamma more clearly it is thus important to touch upon the subject of good and evil.

The concept of good and evil (or good and bad) poses a difficulty on account of the meanings of these words in English and the criteria for evaluation.²⁰ What determines something to be ’good’ or ’evil’?

This dilemma, however, is primarily confined to English. The Pali terms dealing with these concepts are clearly defined, as will be discussed below.

The English word ’good’, in particular, has a very broad range of meaning. Someone who behaves virtuously is called a ’good person’; when people eat delicious, agreeable food, they call the food or the restaurant where it is served ’good’; an engine that runs efficiently or smoothly is called ’good’; a wooden mallet that serves its purpose is called ’good’; a movie that is fun and enjoyable is called ’good’; a painting beautiful from an artistic point of view is called ’good’, or if it fetches a high price it is called ’good’; likewise, a successful, well-managed school with clever students is called ’good’. The same table may be called ’good’ by three different people, but for various reasons. One person says it is good because he considers it beautifully crafted; the second says it is good because it serves his purpose for writing; and the third says it is good because he can sell it for a high profit.

Similarly, the same object called good by one person may be called bad by others. Some things seen from one perspective are good, while seen from another perspective are bad. Some behaviour in one country or society may be considered good, while in other countries or societies it is considered bad. There are no conclusive answers or completely clear guidelines. One may have to distinguish between ’morally good’, ’aesthetically good’, and ’economically good’. {246}

The reason for this confusion is that these are matters having to do with a sense of value. The terms ’good’ and ’bad’ can be used across the entire spectrum when referring to a sense of value. Therefore, these terms’ definitions are so broad and diverse.

To avoid this confusion, we need not use these English terms ’good’ and ’bad’ in this context. This way we need not discuss the relative merits or value of things as they appear to different people.

There are a few points to bear in mind regarding this subject of good and evil in relation to kamma:

• In this context of good and evil, the specific Pali terms kusala (’wholesome’) and akusala (’unwholesome’) are used, respectively. These two terms have clearly prescribed definitions and principles for evaluation.

• The analysis of good and evil here is directly related to the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma). In the study of Buddhist ethics, the concepts of wholesomeness and unwholesomeness are thus viewed as natural phenomena (sabhāva). They are not viewed in light of a relative sense of value.²¹ The study of relative value pertains to the level of conventional truth (sammati-niyāma) or of social prescriptions (saṅgama-paññatti), whose perimeters are clearly distinguished from the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma).

• The law of kamma is connected to other laws. The connections of particular importance include: internally, i.e. within an individual person, the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma) is based on psychological laws (citta-niyāma); and externally, the law of nature is connected to conventional laws (sammati-niyāma). In regard to this latter relationship, it is important to clearly separate the boundaries between the law of kamma and conventional laws, although there is a link between them.

The Wholesome and the Unwholesome

Although the Pali terms kusala and akusala are frequently translated as ’good’ and ’bad’ respectively, this is not a truly accurate definition. Some things may be wholesome (kusala) yet in English they may not be called ’good’; likewise, some things may be unwholesome (akusala) but in English they may not be referred to as ’bad’.

Wholesomeness and unwholesomeness arise in the mind, and they begin by producing effects on the mind and by influencing a person’s personality; these effects are then expressed outwardly. The meaning of these two terms – kusala and akusala – thus focuses on the essential basis for wholesome and unwholesome action: the principal emphasis is on the internal workings of the mind.

The term kusala literally means ’skilful’, ’skilled’, ’proficient’, ’dextrous’, ’easeful’, ’favourable’, ’supportive’, ’appropriate’, ’virtuous’, ’meritorious’, ’the elimination of base, repellent qualities’, or ’the dispelling of illness’.

The term akusala refers to those conditions that are foes of kusala or stand in opposition to kusala, for example a lack of skill or a lack of ease.

In the scriptures, there are four principal definitions for the term kusala:

1. Ārogya: freedom from illness: the state of mind free from illness; a state of mental health. This refers to those conditions and factors that are conducive to mental health and help to ward off mental illness. When these factors are present, the mind is not distressed, agitated, impaired, or weak; rather, it is robust, nimble, pliable, and at ease.

2. Anavajja: harmless; blameless. This refers to a mind that is non-defective, non-corrupted, unblemished, and undisturbed. The mind is complete, pure, clear, and bright. {247}

3. Kosalla-sambhūta: springing from wisdom; stemming from intelligence. The mind is endowed with wisdom or with those attributes resulting from understanding. The mind is luminous, seeing into the truth. This is consistent with the principle stating that wholesome qualities have wise reflection (yoniso-manasikāra) as proximate cause (padaṭṭhāna).

4. Sukha-vipāka: possessing happiness as fruition; leading to happiness. When wholesome qualities are present in the mind, happiness and contentment arise immediately; one need not wait for a reward or compensation from outside. Similarly, when the body is strong and healthy (aroga), when one is free of all harmful, impure, or toxic elements (anavajja), and one has the knowledge that one is in a safe and suitable place (kosalla-sambhūta), although one may not experience any exceptional states of mind, one is inherently happy and at ease.

Some texts mention three more definitions for kusala: ’intelligent’ (cheka; ’clever’); ’safe’ (khema; ’secure’); and ’free from anxiety’ (niddaratha). These three definitions, however, are already included in the four definitions mentioned above.²² Note also that the third definition above – kosalla-sambhūta – is the primary definition for kusala.

The meaning of akusala can be interpreted as opposite to those definitions of kusala above. This term refers to an unsound state of mind, to a lack of mental health. Unwholesome qualities are detrimental, reproachable, and faulty; they stem from ignorance (avijjā) and bear fruit as suffering. In sum, they weaken and impair the mind. This stands in contrast to wholesome qualities, which support and strengthen the mind.

To clarify this matter, one can describe the various attributes of a mind that is wholesome, healthy, pure, etc. Wholesome qualities (kusala-dhamma) engender these attributes or these states of mind. Conversely, unwholesome qualities (akusala-dhamma) impair or corrupt the mind.

The following wholesome attributes are drawn from various passages in the Pali Canon. They range from attributes present in the minds of ordinary human beings, up to those attributes present in the minds of fully awakened beings – the arahants.

Group #1: passaddha: relaxed, tranquil, calm; lahu: lightness of mind; mudu: gentle, tender, mild; kamañña: wieldy, ready for work; paguṇa: adroit; uju: upright, not crooked, not distorted.²³

Group #2: mudu: gentle, mild; kammanīya: wieldy, suitable for work; pabhas-sara: brilliant, clear; apabhaṅgu: robust, not frail; samāhita: steadfast; anāvaraṇa: unimpeded, unconfined; anivaraṇa: unhindered, unobstructed, unconstrained; anupakkiliṭṭha: untarnished, unmuddied; anajjhārūḷha: unconstricted, unoppressed; avighāta: untroubled, unafflicted.²⁴ {248}

Group #3: samāhita: steadfast, balanced, even; parisuddha: pure, impeccable; pariyodāta: pristine, bright; anaṅgaṇa: unblemished, clear; vigatūpakkilesa: unstained; mudubhūta: gentle, tender; kammanīya: wieldy; ṭhita and āneñjappatta: steady, grounded, composed, stable, unshakeable, non-wavering.²⁵

The next two groups primarily consist of attributes belonging to arahants:

Group #4: akiñcana: nothing lingering in the mind, free from latent anxiety; santa: peaceful, satisfied; asoka: sorrowless; viraja: free from dust; khema: safe, secure, free from danger; nicchāta: sated, free from hankering; sītabhūta: cooled, deeply at peace; nibbuta: cooled, calmed; serī: released, able to wander freely; sayaṁvasī: self-mastery, self-reliant; sukhī: happy.²⁶

Group #5: anallīna: unentangled, unobsessed; anajjhosita: unintimidated; anūpalitta: unsoiled, unpolluted; anissita: independent, not dependent on anything; visaññuta: unfettered; vippamutta: liberated; vimariyādikata-citta: with an unbounded, limitless mind.²⁷

For ease of memory, these attributes may be divided into various main headings:

1. Stability: e.g.: steadfast, steady, even, unshakeable, unwavering, non-agitated, non-vacillating.

2. Purity: e.g.: untainted, unmuddied, unstained, unblemished, clear, bright, brilliant.

3. Freedom: e.g.: unentangled, unconfined, unrestricted, unbound, unafflicted, expansive.

4. Suitability for work: e.g.: gentle, soft, light, at ease, adroit, supple, robust, upright, not frail, unbiased, not crooked, non-deviating, not distorted.

5. Peace: e.g.: relaxed, calm, content, not stressed, not lacking, not hankering, not agitated, untroubled, undisturbed.

When one is familiar with the attributes of a healthy, unblemished mind, one can examine those qualities that are defined as either wholesome or unwholesome. How do wholesome qualities support and strengthen the mind, and how to unwholesome qualities plague and spoil, weaken and afflict the mind? {249}

Here are examples of wholesome qualities: sati: mindfulness, the ability to sustain attention; mettā: lovingkindness, goodwill, the wish for others to be happy; alobha: non-greed, absence of craving, the inclination to be generous; paññā: wisdom, penetrative insight; passaddhi: tranquillity, physical repose and mental calm, an absence of stress and restlessness; kusala-chanda: wholesome enthusiasm, love of goodness, aspiration for truth, a wish to harmonize with causes and conditions; muditā: delight and rejoicing when others succeed or are happy.

Here are examples of unwholesome qualities: kāma-chanda: greed, covetousness, hankering (see Note Wholesome and Unwholesome Desire); byāpāda: ill-will, indignation, resentment; thīna-middha: despondency, discouragement, apathy, listlessness, lethargy; uddhacca-kukkucca: restlessness, mental agitation, mental disturbance, moodiness, worry, anxiety; vicikicchā: doubt, indecisiveness; kodha: anger; issā: envy; macchariya: stinginess, jealousy, a wish to obstruct others.

When one is endowed with lovingkindness (mettā), the mind is happy, peaceful, and expansive. Kindness supports and strengthens the mind. And mindfulness helps to sustain attention on those things with which one is engaged. It is aware of appropriate action in specific circumstances, wards against unwholesome qualities, and prepares the mind for work. These two qualities are thus classified as wholesome.

Jealousy constricts, agitates, and oppresses the mind; it clearly weakens and impairs the mind. Anger burns from within, causing mental distress, and it can quickly damage one’s physical health. Craving, or just ordinary greed, entangles, distorts, and beclouds the mind, making it fretful and anxious. These qualities are thus unwholesome.

Although despondency, apathy, listlessness, and restlessness, etc., are unwholesome, in English it is not fully accurate to say that these qualities are ’bad’. Similarly, some wholesome qualities like tranquillity are not necessarily referred to as ’good’. This demonstrates how the terms ’wholesome’ and ’unwholesome’ are not identical to the terms ’good’ and ’bad’.

By understanding the meanings of kusala and akusala, one also gains an understanding of good kamma and bad kamma, that is, of wholesome kamma (kusala-kamma) and unwholesome kamma (akusala-kamma).

As mentioned earlier, intention (cetanā) is the essential factor for volitional action (kamma). Therefore, wholesome intentions (kusala-cetanā) are defined as wholesome kamma, and unwholesome intentions (akusala-cetanā) are defined as unwholesome kamma.

When wholesome and unwholesome intentions are expressed by way of body, speech, or mind, they are referred to as wholesome and unwholesome physical actions (kāya-kamma), verbal actions (vacī-kamma), and mental actions (mano-kamma), respectively. {250}

Special Points on Wholesomeness and Unwholesomeness

The Wholesome and the Unwholesome Can Be Interconnected

Some people are endowed with faith, practise generosity, keep moral precepts, or possess aspects of wisdom, all of which are wholesome qualities or activities, yet they become conceited or arrogant as a consequence of this virtuous behaviour. Conceit and arrogance are unwholesome qualities. This is an example of the wholesome acting as a condition for the unwholesome.

Some people develop concentration and attain the jhānas, yet become captivated by these refined states. Some people develop lovingkindness and goodwill, yet when they encounter an attractive sense object, their love facilitates the arising of lust, which may then be followed by other unwholesome qualities like prejudice. These are more examples of the wholesome acting as a condition for the unwholesome.

Faith is a wholesome quality, uplifting and focusing the mind. But if one relates to faith unskilfully, it may lead to wrong view (diṭṭhi) and conceit (māna). One is convinced that one’s own views are correct, while others’ views are false, which may be a cause for quarrelling, disputing, and abuse. This too is an example of the wholesome acting as a condition for the unwholesome.

Some people long to be born in heaven and thus determine to act virtuously. Some yearn for peace and thus practise concentration until they reach the concentrative attainments. Some children wish to be admired by adults and thus try to behave in a well-disciplined way. Some students desire good grades and thus strive to study and seek knowledge.²⁸ Some people feel the burning influence of anger, which then leads them to clearly understand the harmful effects of anger. Some people become offended by an adversary, yet this experience leads them to feel compassion for others. Others may feel anxious or depressed and as a result they gain faith in the Dhamma. These are examples of the unwholesome acting as a condition for the wholesome.

A teenager is warned by his parents to take great care over whom he associates with, but he does not listen. Later, he is duped by a bad character into drug addiction. When he is aware of what has happened, he is both angry at himself and depressed. He understands his parents’ warning and is deeply moved by their care for him (the unwholesome conditioning the wholesome), which in turn makes him even more angry at himself (the wholesome conditioning the unwholesome).

During this exchange between the wholesome and the unwholesome, when wholesome qualities are present the mind is in a state of wellbeing, while when unwholesome qualities are present the mind is impaired. The wholesome and the unwholesome may alternate rapidly, and for this reason it is important to distinguish between different mind moments.

Good and Evil, and the Wholesome and the Unwholesome

In some cases these two pairs of terms – puñña and pāpa and kusala and akusala – can be used interchangeably, while in other cases they cannot. The distinction between these terms can thus cause confusion. Here, only a brief explanation of this distinction is given. {251}

In a literal sense, the term puñña (’merit’, ’goodness’) is defined in two ways: factors for purifying the underlying disposition of mind, and factors leading to the fruition of a meritorious state of existence. Other definitions include: factors leading to holiness, and factors bringing one’s wishes to fulfilment.

The term pāpa is literally defined as factors leading to the round of suffering (vaṭṭa-dukkha), or factors leading to a bad destination (duggati). Common definitions for pāpa include ’filthy’, ’indecent’, ’wicked’, ’evil’, and ’base’. Occasionally, pāpa is used as a qualifying adjective for the fruit of volitional action (vipāka); in this context it means ’miserable’ (dukkha) or ’undesirable’ (aniṭṭha).²⁹

Note that these definitions have been established by linguists and only reveal certain aspects of the meanings of these terms. It is essential to also understand their true meanings within the context of Dhamma teachings.

In the broadest sense, puñña is equivalent to kusala, and pāpa is equivalent to akusala. Yet in the actual application of these terms, puñña and pāpa are normally used in a more restricted sense than kusala and akusala.

Generally speaking, pāpa is used as an equivalent for akusala more often than puñña is used as an equivalent for kusala. The reverse scenario, however, of kusala being used as an equivalent for puñña, is common.

An important instance of pāpa being used as an equivalent for akusala is in the first and second factors in the teaching of the four right efforts (sammappadhāna), in which these two terms are used in conjunction: one strives to protect against unarisen ’evil unwholesome’ (pāpa-akusala) qualities, and one strives to abandon those evil unwholesome qualities already arisen. In the third and fourth factors, however, puñña is not used together with kusala. Here only kusala is mentioned: one strives to cultivate those wholesome qualities not yet arisen, and one strives to preserve those arisen wholesome factors and bring them to perfection.³⁰

In brief, the definitions of puñña and kusala are not identical. If one divides kusala into two levels, as mundane wholesomeness (lokiya-kusala) and transcendent wholesomeness (lokuttara-kusala), the term puñña applies to the former. In the case that puñña refers to transcendent wholesomeness, a modifier is added, for example: lokuttara-puñña (’transcendent goodness’). This term, however, is uncommon (it is only found in one passage of the commentaries, along with the corresponding passage in the sub-commentaries.)³¹

In the Pali Canon, the Buddha frequently mentions the term opadhika-puñña: ’merit yielding fruit as the five aggregates’, which is a form of mundane goodness. This implies that the term anopadhika-puñña (or nirūpadhi-puñña) – ’transcendent goodness’ – should appear as a pair, but these two terms do not appear anywhere in the scriptures.³²

Instead, in one sutta of the Pali Canon one finds the term nirūpadhi-kusala (’transcendent wholesomeness’) paired with opadhika-puñña (’mundane goodness’):

Generally speaking, the Buddha used the term puñña in the sense of mundane goodness (opadhika-puñña). Although the term opadhika is not added, it is implied. The meaning is thus equivalent to mundane wholesomeness (lokiya-kusala). Puñña is thus only one part of kusala, which also encompasses the transcendent. Only very few commentarial passages fully equate puñña and kusala.³³

The commentaries explain the various nuances of the term puñña. The Paramatthadīpanī (the commentary to the Itivuttaka) for instance, provides five definitions for this term:³⁴

1. The fruit derived from wholesome actions, for example in the passage: ’Due to undertaking various wholesome things, merit increases.’³⁵

2. Virtuous behaviour in the sense sphere (kāmāvacara) and the fine-material sphere (rūpāvacara), e.g.: ’One is subject to ignorance if one proliferates over meritorious activities (puññābhisaṅkhāra).’³⁶

3. Distinctively happy destinations of birth, e.g.: ’Consciousness arriving at a state of goodness (puñña).’³⁷

4. Wholesome intention, for example in the term puññakiriyā-vatthu (’bases of meritorious action’; this is equivalent to wholesome action – kusala-kamma).³⁸

5. Wholesome actions in the three planes of existence, e.g.: ’Bhikkhus, do not fear goodness (puñña).’³⁹ (This is equivalent to mundane wholesomeness.)

The fifth definition is the principal one, corresponding to the explanation in the Mahāniddesa:

In sum, ’goodness’ (puñña) refers to mundane wholesomeness (kusala); ’evil’ (pāpa) refers to all unwholesomeness (akusala). Kusala is divided into mundane and transcendent wholesomeness, while akusala is exclusively mundane. Both goodness (puñña) and evil (pāpa) refer to mundane phenomena.⁴⁰

These definitions help to understand such phrases as ’free from good and evil’, ’abandoning good and evil’, and ’rising above good and evil’, which refer to attributes of an arahant’s mind.⁴¹

Note that such freedom from good and evil implies a freedom from or an abandonment of mundane wholesomeness; it does not mean that arahants have abandoned transcendent wholesomeness. {253}

When the terms puñña and kusala appear in tandem, kusala takes on the definition of puñña; its meaning is thus narrowed, referring to mundane wholesomeness.⁴² An important attribute of mundane goodness, or mundane wholesomeness, is that a person is still concerned with material or sensual results. The focus here is not deliverance of mind or on the complete removal of mental defilement.

Here are two examples in the Pali Canon of how these terms are applied: when a bhikkhu is thinking of giving up the training, he often says that he will disrobe in order to spend wealth and make merit;⁴³ and a virtuous householder’s life is marked by spending wealth and making merit.⁴⁴ The term ’merit’ here refers to various virtuous actions, like being charitable, offering gifts, upholding moral standards, etc., corresponding to the term ’wholesome action’ (kusala-kamma).⁴⁵ The same meaning applies in the passage: ’Merit is favourable for devas, for human beings, and for renunciants.’⁴⁶ In the Buddha’s statement that ’merit is a name for happiness’, puñña here refers to the desirable fruits of wholesome actions.⁴⁷ The expression ’death due to the end of merit’ (puññakhaya-maraṇa) refers to having used up the fruits of meritorious actions which conditioned that particular birth.⁴⁸

In a similar vein, the definition of the term dhamma, whereby it corresponds to the term puñña, is related to going to heaven, just like the term adhamma, corresponding to pāpa, is related to going to hell.⁴⁹

Although puñña and kusala are synonyms, in the general application of these terms, the meaning of kusala is broader than the meaning of puñña. These terms can be used interchangeably in some contexts, but not in others. The definitions of pāpa and akusala are closer to one another, and thus these two terms are more frequently used interchangeably. They are most often used to portray attributes in opposition to puñña. Here are a few more points pertaining to these terms:

• The term kusala may be used in reference to intentional actions (kamma) or in reference to natural phenomena. Puñña, on the other hand, is usually used only in reference to intentional actions. The terms ’wholesome action’ (kusala-kamma) and ’wholesome state’ (kusala-dhamma) are common. The term ’meritorious action’ (puñña-kamma) is also found, but the term ’meritorious state’ (puñña-dhamma) sounds unusual and does not appear to be used in Dhamma teachings. The terms ’unwholesome action’ (akusala-kamma), ’unwholesome state’ (akusala-dhamma), ’evil action’ (pāpa-kamma), and ’evil state’ (pāpa-dhamma) are all found in the scriptures.

• In special circumstances, puñña refers to the fruit of wholesome actions. Even in those cases where it does not refer to the fruit of goodness directly, puñña is used in relation to the effects of actions, or it seems to focus on external or sensual rewards, in particular to happiness and to being born in good destinations.

• For these reasons, puñña is usually only used in reference to mundane goodness and wholesomeness. It is very rare that this term is used to encompass the meaning of transcendent wholesomeness. {254}

Here are two more points that may be of interest to scholars:

• The terms puñña and pāpa were commonly used before the Buddha’s time, and their meanings were tied up with the concepts of fate and the sacred. The Buddha used these terms to the extent that they fit with Buddhist principles. The terms kusala and akusala were also used before the Buddha’s time, but in the sense of ’skilled’, ’clever’, ’proficient’, ’easeful’, or ’healthy’ (and the opposite meanings). The Buddha used these terms, but defined them to correspond with desired nuances of meaning.

• For this reason, the terms kusala and akusala have truly Buddhist connotations, and are used in a technical sense. In contrast, the Buddha tended to use the terms puñña and pāpa when teaching householders and when referring to everyday life.⁵⁰

Criteria for Good and Bad Action

As mentioned earlier the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma) is most closely linked to psychological laws (citta-niyāma) and to conventional laws (sammati-niyāma). This close relationship between the three can cause confusion for people. Therefore, in order to clearly understand the subject of kamma, and of good and evil, it is important to distinguish the boundaries between these three laws.

The law of kamma overlaps psychological laws, yet there is also a clear point of separation. Intention (cetanā), which is the essence and primary agent within the law of kamma, makes this law independent from other laws, or it provides people with a role independent of other laws. Intention enables a personal sphere of deliberation and design, to the extent that people claim to be equal to or to compete with nature, and distinguish their own world of creations from the domain of nature.

Intention relies on the mechanisms of psychological laws⁵¹ in order to function, and when a person performs intentional actions, the fruition of these actions rely on psychological laws in order to be maintained. This is similar to someone driving a motorboat. The driver is like intention, which pertains to the law of kamma. The boat’s engine is like the mechanisms and various factors of the mind, which pertain to psychological laws. The driver must rely on the engine, but the direction which the boat (i.e. a person’s life along with his or her body) goes, is determined by the driver. The driver relies on and derives benefit from the engine, yet he is ultimately responsible for where the boat goes. This is similar to how the law of kamma relies on and derives benefit from psychological laws. Intentional action, however, is responsible for the direction life goes, including the consequences one’s decisions have for the mind and body.

The relationship between the law of kamma and psychological laws generally causes no problems, because people tend not to give it much attention. Regardless of the level of interest people have in it, or even whether people are aware of it or not, this relationship functions automatically, generally out of sight from people.

On the contrary, the relationship between the law of kamma and conventional laws causes much confusion for people. Many people have doubts about good and evil; they question what is good and evil, what is the true validity behind marking an action as good or evil, and what are the criteria for determining good and evil. {255}

Many people claim that good and evil are concepts exclusively determined and assigned by people and by society. The same action may be labelled good in one society or by one generation, but labelled bad in another society or at another point in history. The same action may be endorsed by one society and forbidden by another. For example, some tribal cultures may decree that killing members of another tribe is good, while more developed cultures will recognize that the killing of all human beings is wrong. Some religions teach that killing animals for food is blameless, while other religions teach that injuring any living creature is unskilful. Some cultures say that it is good for a woman to have several husbands, while others say that a woman should have only one – they may even prescribe that a woman should jump into her husband’s funeral pyre. Some societies declare that children should honour and obey their elders, without dispute, while others declare that mutual respect and honour is independent of age and that everyone should engage in reasoned debate.

The claim that concepts of good and evil are conventional designations created by people and by society is largely true. Having said this, such conventional designations have no bearing on the law of kamma, and one should be careful not to confuse the two.

Conventional designations of good and evil pertain to conventional laws (sammati-niyāma). They are distinct from matters of good and evil (matters of wholesomeness and unwholesomeness) pertaining to the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma). Although these two laws are related, they have a clear point of separation. Confusion arises because people are often unable to distinguish between the two.

The factor that acts as a bridge between these two laws, and also acts to separate them, is the same as the distinguishing factor between the law of kamma and psychological laws, i.e. intention (cetanā). This will be examined in more detail, below.

In relation to the law of kamma, there are several important aspects to social prescriptions:

Social prescriptions are not directly connected to the wholesome and unwholesome as dictated by the law of kamma. They are established by society for a particular objective, say for social harmony and peace. They manifest as a form of mutual agreement or commitment. These prescriptions may lead to social peace and wellbeing or they may not; they may be beneficial or even harmful. This depends on how comprehensive the knowledge is of those who enact these prescriptions, or on these people’s level of sincerity. These prescriptions come in many forms, from various customs and traditions, up to a body of laws.

Here, good and evil is determined by these conventional laws (sammati-niyāma). The concepts of good and evil in this case are varied and variable. Their variation and changeability, however, do not pertain to the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma). The two sets of laws should not be confused. When someone transgresses these prescriptions, this is a matter pertaining to conventional laws, not to the law of kamma. {256}

Now we can examine how these social conventions enter into the domain of the law of kamma. When someone accepts these prescriptions, regardless of whether these prescriptions are virtuous and beneficial or not, yet he or she decides to disobey them, at that moment there is an intention to disobey or to transgress them.⁵² Moreover, the person will be aware of these intentions, without being able to ignore or deny them.

Intention here is connected directly to the law of kamma. Some societies may try to include the factor of intention when passing judgement on people, in order to determine whether the infringement of a law was performed intentionally or not. But this is still a matter pertaining to social conventions; it simply indicates that this society is intelligent and knows how to benefit from the law of kamma.

In terms of the law of kamma, regardless of whether a society examines whether a person acted intentionally or not, or whether it determines if a law has been transgressed or not, the kammic process has begun the moment a person has an intention to infringe on a socially accepted prescription and acts upon this intention. The process of bearing kammic fruit (vipāka) has been set in motion, and the person begins to experience the results of his or her volitional actions.

The goodness or badness of an action in such a case must be considered from the perspective of conventional laws. It is not directly related to the law of kamma (it is linked to the law of kamma when one takes into account the intention and level of wisdom of those people who have enacted these prescriptions.) In regard to observing and upholding these prescriptions, the law of kamma is only related in the area of acknowledging and accepting these socially prescribed terms, and then acting intentionally, in some way or another, in response to them.

Technically speaking, the dynamics discussed so far are part of virtuous conduct (sīla). They reveal the connection between human laws and the laws of nature, which must be clearly distinguished.

There are situations where conventional designations of good and bad are indirectly related to the law of kamma. For example, a society may prescribe a particular action as good and correct, to be observed by everyone. Later, someone endowed with wisdom recognizes that in fact this action is neither good nor beneficial, and may even be harmful to society. That person may try to explain this to other members of society, try to revise their ways of conduct, and perhaps even refuse to observe this custom.

In such a circumstance, the person’s actions do not spring from defiled intention, as is the case for someone who breaks a law for unwholesome reasons. Instead, it springs from intention accompanied by wisdom, aiming to improve the wellbeing of others. The gist of the kammic process in these individual cases is not the same, as it depends on the quality of intention.

In any case, whatever the quality of intention, the perpetrator of such an act is aware of the specific intention and must receive the fruit of it according to the law of kamma. He may be able to hide from or deceive society, but he cannot hide from his own mind, nor can he deceive the laws of nature. In a nutshell, the determining factor in regard to the law of kamma is whether intention is wholesome or unwholesome. {257}

Generally speaking, there is no transgression, or intent to transgress, when society agrees unanimously to repeal or amend a law or prescription. In such a case, the transgressor has not compromised his integrity or betrayed a social contract.

This can be illustrated by some simple examples. Imagine two people live together. In order for both people to live at ease, they lay down certain regulations. Say they work at different locations and return home at different times, but they agree to eat supper together. They cannot wait for the other person forever, so they each agree not to eat supper alone before seven in the evening. One of them likes cats and dislikes dogs; the other likes dogs and dislikes cats. They therefore agree not to have any pets in the house.

If either of them decides not to honour one of these agreements, the intention to breach it arises and things proceed according to the law of kamma. This is so even though, in truth, eating before seven in the evening or bringing a pet into the house is neither inherently good nor bad. Another two people may lay down an opposite set of regulations. If one of the two persons recognizes that the regulations in fact are unconducive to their communal wellbeing, they must discuss whether to revoke or to change them. Neglecting to follow these regulations then does not entail an intention to transgress them.

The Vinaya – the monastic set of training rules – is linked to intention as part of a person’s conduct, culminating in his or her moral integrity (sīla). Here one can see both the relationship and the distinction between uncertain, indefinite matters of good and evil, of right and wrong, prescribed by a society, and certain, definite matters of wholesomeness and unwholesomeness pertaining to the law of kamma.

There exists a relationship between social prescriptions and the law of kamma. Having said this, regardless of whether a society defines good and evil with an understanding of what is truly wholesome and unwholesome – of what is favourable and what is harmful to people – or whether it lacks this understanding, the dynamics of the law of kamma proceed naturally, unaltered by the social prescriptions.

A society may endorse the taking of intoxicants, believing that they make people happy; it may advocate violent emotions; it may believe that one should incite and stimulate people, increasing their desires and competitiveness, in order for them to be more productive; it may claim that killing other groups of people is good or that killing animals is blameless. In such cases, the so-called goodness of social prescriptions conflicts with wholesomeness within the law of kamma.

From a social perspective, these prescriptions or beliefs may have both positive and negative consequences. The endorsement of intoxicants, for example, may greatly increase the state’s income by way of excise tax. But at the same time many members of society may end up dull and idle, or debilitated, and crime may be rampant. The belief that people should be frenetically productive may lead to rapid advancements in the material wellbeing of society, but it may also lead to an increase in heart disease, mental illness, suicide, and an abnormal number of other problems. {258} Similarly, in a society that condones the killing of other human beings, its members will be viewed by outsiders as cruel and untrustworthy.

Many of these consequences manifesting in society may also spring from dynamics within the law of kamma. At beginning stages, however, to avoid confusion, one should distinguish between results occurring from social prescriptions and results occurring from the law of kamma. Later, one can examine how these two dynamics are linked.

In regard to the law of kamma, there are two levels of intention: first, there is intention accompanied by an adherence to a social prescription, which manifests for example as beliefs or values; second, there is the intention to either observe or to disobey a prescription at a particular moment in time. In any case, the reaping of kammic fruit begins immediately once one has established an intention.

Take for example a person who revels in drinking alcohol; while drinking, his intention will be accompanied by a dimwitted form of delight. If he drinks regularly he will develop this state of mind as an habitual disposition.

When someone who is frantically vying to obtain things is engaged in work, his intention will be accompanied by stress and desperation, which will become habitual features of his mind.

Although someone who is determined to kill others may be praised and rewarded by his society, at the time of killing his intention is accompanied by malice and cruelty, or by wild ambition. If he frequently indulges in such killing, these states of mind may develop to form his entire personality. The quality of his mind will become coarser and will lose its refinement, subtlety, and tenderness.

Here, the term cetanā (’intention’) should be inspected more closely. In the Pali Canon, the meaning of the term cetanā is more subtle and refined than the meaning of ’intention’ in English. Generally speaking, the term ’intention’ in English is used when one wishes to link internal deliberations with external actions. For example, people may say: ’He had a slip of the tongue; he didn’t intend to say that,’ or ’she acted intentionally.’ In Dhamma teachings – i.e. according to the principle of kamma – however, deliberate speech, physical actions, and thoughts, memories and recollections, and emotional responses to things received by way of the five senses, no matter how minor or temporary, are all accompanied by intention.

Cetanā thus refers to volition, purpose, and deliberation, to selecting the objects for attention. Intention is the principal factor for steering and activating the mind, which then inclines towards or turns away from things, or pursues a specific direction. It is the leader, director, and governor of the mind, determining how one relates to various things. It shapes the course of the mind and in the end it conditions one’s particular state of mind.

When intention arises, kamma manifests. When kamma manifests, it produces immediate effects, because with the arising of intention the mind becomes active – there is mental activity. Even in the case of minor, fleeting thoughts, which do not bear any significant fruit, they still have an effect. At the very least they constitute a form of fine kammic ’dust’ that accumulates in the mind and affects its properties. When it increases, for instance when the mind resorts to these thoughts frequently, or when they intensify and are expressed as outward actions, their effects become more pronounced, developing into a person’s habits and personality. {259}

Take the example of harmful deeds. One need not examine an action as dire as killing another person; even damaging something of very little value, if performed with malicious intent or a mind of anger, say tearing up a piece of useless paper out of irritation, has an effect on the quality of the mind. It is not the same as someone tearing up unneeded paper with an ordinary state of mind.

When one performs a volitional action repeatedly, the effects of this kammic accumulation become more obvious and may gradually magnify in scope. This is similar to dust settling in a room, in a way unnoticed by the person living there. All volitional actions bears some kind of fruit. Apart from the amount and the potency of the kammic effects accumulated, the level of their importance is also related to the specific quality and function of the mind.

There needs to be plenty of dust on a road before it is considered to be filthy. A lesser amount of dust on the floor of a living room is considered to be dirty. An amount less than that on the surface of a desk is considered unclean and may disturb the person working there. A small amount of dust on a mirror soils it and diminishes its usefulness. And a minuscule amount of dust on a pair of glasses is noticeable and blurs one’s vision. A similar analogy is that of using a knife to scrape a road surface, a floor in a house, or a pair of glasses, respectively. Reverse similes also apply: compare using a small velvet cloth or wad of cotton wool to wipe a floor, in contrast to using it to clean a pair of glasses.

No intentional action is fruitless, which is summed up by these Buddhist sayings:

People tend to overlook the importance of the subtle effects of volitional action at the level of the mind. Here are two more similes to help clarify this matter:

• There are many different degrees of clean and dirty water, e.g.: marsh water, river water, tap water, and distilled water. Marsh water may be used as a habitat for various creatures, but it is not suitable for bathing, drinking, or other more refined purposes. River water is suitable for bathing and for washing cloths, but perhaps not suitable for drinking. Tap water may be used for drinking, but not for intravenous injections. For ordinary purposes, tap water is adequate for people’s overall needs, but if one is faced with special circumstances it is insufficient.

  This is similar to differences in the quality of mind, in terms of varying degrees of coarseness and subtlety, turbidity and brightness, due to actions performed and accumulated. During much of one’s life, one may not feel there is a problem with mediocre or relatively coarse states of mind, but later on one may be faced with a situation calling for more refined states of mind. One’s accumulated actions in the past may cause problems and one’s habitual state of mind may be inadequate for the circumstances; indeed, it may even be completely dysfunctional.

• Water may exist in various degrees of undulation or stillness, e.g.: surging ocean swells, small waves on a river due to the passing of a motorboat, a trickling stream, a tranquil pond, and utterly still water in a vessel. In some cases, one may be able to make use of undulating water, but in other cases one may need the water to be so still that one is able to float a needle on the surface. {260}

  This is similar to the quality of the mind, either coarse or refined, which is relevant to one’s specific mental application and to arriving at exceptional states attainable by human beings.

Conventional laws (sammati-niyāma) and the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma) are distinct from one another. The kammic process follows its own nature, independent of any social prescriptions which may run counter to it. But because there is a relationship between these two sets of laws, a person who acts appropriately vis-à-vis the law of kamma (i.e. adheres to wholesome principles) may face problems from conflicting social prescriptions. For example, those people who live in a society that endorses the taking of intoxicants, but wish not to partake of these themselves, receive some effects from their actions. Although their clear and bright states of mind are not sullied by intoxicants, they may be ridiculed by others for being weak or looked down on in other ways. Even within the domain of kamma, they may experience difficulties from resisting these social customs and norms, leading to some degree of conflict in the mind, depending on their level of wisdom, which dispels any sense of dis-ease.

In a developed and wise society, people draw upon the experiences from past generations to determine what is truly beneficial to human beings and what is not. They then establish conventional laws and regulations dealing with good and evil that are in harmony with principles of wholesomeness and unwholesomeness conforming to the law of kamma.

This ability to synchronize social prescriptions with kammic principles is one way of measuring how developed or civilized a particular society is.

In this sense, when one evaluates the merits of social prescriptions having to do with good and evil, one may look at them from two angles: first, from the perspective of conventional laws, do these prescriptions lead to the welfare of society; and second, from the perspective of the law of kamma, are they wholesome and conducive to people’s overall wellbeing?

Some social prescriptions may have been followed and upheld for centuries, but are not in fact beneficial, neither from the perspective of conventional laws nor from the perspective of the law of kamma. Members of such a society should agree to abolish these prescriptions. Alternatively, they may need to rely on a wise, pure-hearted, and compassionate person for encouragement, as was the case when the Buddha persuaded people to abandon animal sacrifices and do away with the caste system in India.

When one notices that particular prescriptions are advantageous on a social level, e.g. they are conducive to material prosperity, yet that they are incompatible with the principles of wholesomeness according to the law of kamma, one should remember the following fact: sometimes people mistake what is essentially unfavourable for society as something beneficial, that is, they are pleased by a false form of progress, which is satisfying in the short term but harmful in the long term. Those things that are truly beneficial should be compatible with the wholesome principles outlined in the law of kamma.

Those things that are spiritually beneficial to an individual are generally beneficial to all people. Here, one can make a comparison to material progress. Most people wish for material prosperity, believing that an abundance of material things and a surplus of comfort will lead to the highest good for society. They therefore strive to maximize the degree of material development. Meanwhile, they often destroy those modes of existence that are seen as outdated and obstacles to progress. Eventually, however, they may realize that many of their actions have been faulty. Although their society may appear to be advanced, many hazards to physical health and to people’s very existence have been created, to the extent that if people persist in these new ways of acting, they may be heading for calamity or annihilation. {261}

Just as one should promote material progress that is not harmful to people’s physical wellbeing, so too, one should nurture the kind of social development that is not harmful to people’s spiritual life.

As part of a practical analysis of good and evil, the Buddha first encouraged people to reflect on the wholesome and the unwholesome as the essential factor for evaluation. He developed the teaching to include an awareness of good and evil as it manifests in the mind (i.e. to apply one’s conscience), and a consideration of the opinions by wise individuals as a frame of reference. These two factors act as the basis for moral shame (hiri) and fear of wrongdoing (ottappa). Moreover, he encouraged people to consider the fruits of their actions as they affect themselves and others, that is, on an individual and a social level.

Because some people lack a necessary depth of wisdom and may not recognize for themselves what is wholesome and unwholesome, the Buddha encouraged them to consider the opinions of the wise. If they still have doubt, then they should examine the effects of their own actions, even as they relate to social conventions. This threefold examination (an awareness of the wholesome and unwholesome, a consideration of the opinions by the wise, and an examination of the effects of one’s actions) leads to a comprehensive analysis.

To sum up, when evaluating what is good and bad kamma, one first takes intention (cetanā) into consideration to decide if an action constitutes kamma, and then one may apply the following criteria:

A. Principal criteria:

Note that the two sub-factors of criteria 1 above are essentially the same. They both focus on whether an action is beneficial or harmful to people’s spiritual life.

Generally speaking, the approval and disapproval, and the praise and criticism, of wise individuals is institutionalized or systematized as religious, cultural, and legal teachings and prescriptions. Although some laws and customs do not accord with the opinions of the wise, and some actions conflicting with established laws and customs may not be censured by the wise, one may say that these cases are exceptional. It is the responsibility of wise individuals in society to regularly investigate these matters. In reference to this process, the Buddha used the term ’investigated by the wise’ (anuvicca viññū); the wise first investigate a specific matter and then express their approval or disapproval.⁵⁴ Having investigated these matters, they amend those things wrongly practised or prescribed, or those things that have deviated from their original and correct purpose. The Buddha, for example, rejected the caste system and the tradition of animal sacrifices.

There is another set of criteria for determining good and evil (or good and bad kamma) which takes into account the law of kamma on its own, as well as the law of kamma in relation to conventional laws. It examines actions from the perspective of natural laws (the real, inherent value of actions), as well as from the perspective of values attributed to actions by human beings. It contains the same principles as the outline described above, but arranges them in a different way:

1. A reference to advantages and disadvantages on the level of the mind: one considers whether an action is supportive or unsupportive to a person’s spiritual life, whether it enhances a person’s quality of life, whether it strengthens or impairs the mind, whether it leads to the increase or decrease of wholesome and unwholesome qualities, and whether it leads to a positive development of a person’s personality.

2. A reference to advantages and disadvantages on the level of the individual: one considers whether an action causes distress or harm to oneself, and whether it damages or promotes true inner wellbeing.⁵⁵

3. A reference to advantages and disadvantages on the level of society: one considers whether an action causes distress or harm to others, whether it damages or promotes the true wellbeing of others or of society.

4. A reference to one’s natural sense of conscience: one considers actions by applying one’s own sense of right and wrong, by asking after a deed is completed whether one is open to self-criticism and self-blame.

5. A reference to social standards: one considers actions according to religious, cultural, and other social prescriptions (e.g. laws and edicts). These prescriptions rely on the examination and scrutiny by wise individuals in a particular society, who help to ensure that people do not uphold them naively or inadvisedly. These wise individuals also determine whether to accept or reject these prescriptions. {263}

Formal Criteria for Evaluation

Before moving on to the subject of the fruits of good and bad actions, here are some quotes from the Pali Canon in reference to the aforementioned material:

The following sutta passage contains a question and answer session between King Pasenadi of Kosala and Ven. Ānanda on the meaning of good and evil. Here, Ānanda links the various criteria mentioned above:

Fruition of Kamma

Levels of Fruition

The most frequently debated subject in regard to kamma pertains to the fruits of kamma. In particular, many people doubt the validity of the principle stating: ’Do good, reap good; do evil, reap evil.’ They gather evidence demonstrating how in real life many people who perform bad actions acquire good things, and many people who perform good actions receive bad things.

These doubts arise due to a confusion between the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma) and conventional laws (sammati-niyāma), whereby these two laws become mixed up. People often fail to distinguish between the boundaries or various stages of these two laws. Even the terms contained in this aforementioned principle are not clearly understood. Instead of understanding the phrase ’do good, reap good’ as equivalent to ’practising goodness one obtains goodness’, ’practising goodness one is endowed with goodness’, ’practising goodness gives rise to goodness’, or ’practising goodness leads to wholesome fruits according to the law of kamma’, people interpret it as ’by practising goodness one acquires favourable objects, personal advantages, or gratifying material things’.

To help clarify this matter, consider the following four levels at which kamma bears fruit:

1. The level of the mind: here one considers how actions affect the mind, by the accumulation of wholesome and unwholesome attributes, and the accumulation of strengths and capabilities; one considers how actions shape a person’s thoughts and feelings, tendencies, preferences, joys and sorrows, etc.

2. The level of personality: here one considers how actions establish a person’s habitual disposition, and how they determine behaviour, attitudes, ability to adapt to various circumstances, reactions, and general interactions with other people and the surrounding environment. This level is connected to the level of the mind, but is distinguished to highlight specific aspects of fruition. {270}

3. The level of a person’s general state of life: here one considers how actions influence a person’s life, i.e. how they lead to satisfactory and unsatisfactory experiences, to various rewards and compensations from outside, to progress and decline, to success and failure, to various forms of gain like material possessions, prestige, praise, and pleasure, and to corresponding forms of loss.⁶⁵ These results can be subdivided into two kinds:

   • Results from non-human factors in one’s environment.

   • Results stemming from other people and society.

4. The level of society: here one considers how people’s actions affect society, for example how they lead to social progress or decline, and to collective wellbeing or distress. Moreover, one considers the effects people’s actions have on the natural environment.

The first two levels pertain primarily to the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma). Level three involves a relationship between the law of kamma and conventional laws (sammati-niyāma), which often causes confusion for people. The fourth level, despite being important, lies outside of the domain of the present subject matter at hand.

Generally speaking, when people look at the fruits of their own actions, or when they examine the validity of whether other people truly do good and receive good, do bad and receive bad, they limit their inspection to the third level, that is, they focus on external rewards. By doing this, they overlook the results connected to the first and second levels, although these are of vital importance. They are important in and of themselves, e.g. the factors of happiness and unhappiness, mental strengths and weaknesses, mental capabilities, and the proficiency or deficiency of spiritual faculties, and they are also important as a key source for the results pertaining to the third level, influencing one’s general state of life.

Results at levels one and two (the mind and the personality) mutually reinforce one another, and they go on to influence how one lives one’s life (level three). Aspects of the third level belonging to the sphere of the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma) are linked to the results of the first and second levels – to one’s overall state of mind – including one’s interests, preferences, and proclivities. The way one pursues happiness or vents frustration, for instance, which is connected to the level of the mind, influences how one perceives and responds to things, how one experiences things, and how one acts and lives one’s life.

In this context, one should examine in what manner people perform particular deeds. Do they follow through with and complete the action? How many obstructions are they willing to face? Are they meticulous or careless, disciplined or slack? Furthermore, how do their actions affect other people’s thoughts and feelings, which may rebound and affect them in turn, say by receiving cooperation or by facing opposition. One’s personality influences how other people play a part in one’s obtaining either satisfactory or unsatisfactory results.

This is not to deny other factors in the process, in particular those conditions in one’s social environment that are linked to the law of kamma and determine one’s state of wellbeing. Here in this chapter, however, the focus is on kamma as it pertains to a person’s inner life. A wider perspective is outlined in the following chapters on external influences and virtuous friendship.⁶⁶ {271}

The preceding teachings on the law of kamma aim to help people improve themselves within the domain of personal actions. Moreover, besides improving oneself, one can guide other people to aspire towards goodness, by providing a wholesome environment according to the principles of a favourable environment (paṭirūpadesavāsa), virtuous friendship (kalyāṇamittatā), and association with good people (sappurisūpassaya).

For the most part, the fruits of kamma manifesting on the third level (one’s way of life) are connected to the mind and personality. Those people who love their work, are honest and diligent, and manage their work well, will generally receive positive fruits of their labour, at least more than those who are lazy or dishonest. Honest and virtuous civil servants, who are capable and eager to fulfil the terms of their office, will generally advance in their profession, better than those who are incapable or half-hearted. Yet sometimes this is not the case, because results at this third level are not exclusively generated by the law of kamma. Factors from other laws and standards, in particular conventional laws, are involved.

An inability to recognize the involvement by these other factors and to distinguish between the relative boundaries of these various laws leads to confusion. Related to this discussion is the phrase: ’Do good, receive bad; do bad, receive good.’ If the law of kamma operates solely on its own, there is no problem; the results accord directly with the actions. If one earnestly reads a book, one will receive knowledge. But sometimes the body may be fatigued, one has a headache, or the temperature is too hot, and one cannot finish the reading assignment or one does not assimilate what one reads. Or perhaps there may arise some kind of mishap and one is interrupted.

In any case, one should remember that for human beings the law of kamma is the essential guiding factor in determining positive and negative results in their lives.

Even before clearly examining the various related causes and conditions, someone who is disappointed may reflect that had one not done these good deeds, things may have turned out much worse. Similarly, if others do good yet do not immediately receive positive results, one can reflect that had they not acted well they may have fallen into hard times. By reflecting in this way, one gains an understanding that no volitional actions are fruitless, and many of them produce profound effects on one’s state of mind and personality.

The common expression, ’Do good, receive good; do bad, receive bad’, is derived from the following Buddhist proverb:⁶⁷

Here, the Buddha quotes verses by previous rishis and bodhisattas, and assimilates them into the Tipiṭaka. These verses may be considered a clear and concise description of the Buddhist principle of kamma.

Note how the first pair of verses applies biological laws (bīja-niyāma) for comparison. This observation helps one to distinguish between the law of kamma and conventional laws. According to the laws of botany, the fruit is directly related to the seed. If one plants tamarind, one gets tamarind; if one plants grapes, one gets grapes; if one plants cabbage, one gets cabbage. There is no reference here to conventional laws. There is no mentioning of planting tamarinds and getting money, or planting cabbages and making a healthy profit. These conditions apply to another stage of the process.

There is a relationship between biological laws and conventional laws. If one has planted grapes and it happens that the market that year demands grapes, one can sell them at a good price and get rich. On another occasion, however, one may grow watermelons, but many other people do so as well, until the fruit floods the market and the price drops. In that year one loses money. Apart from ordinary market forces, there may be other factors involved, like middlemen who force the price down. The important issue here, however, is to recognize the stability and certainty of biological laws, and to discern both the distinction and relationship between biological laws and conventional laws.

This comparison applies also to the law of kamma, which people often confuse with conventional laws, by saying, ’Do good, receive good’, in the sense that by doing good one will become rich or get a promotion. Although these results are likely, they do not always occur. It is like saying, ’Planting mangos is profitable’, ’Planting coconuts makes you rich’, or ’Planting custard apples makes you poor’, which may or not be true, but this sort of statement skips some stages in the process; it is not a thorough description of the truth. It may be acceptable for colloquial speech, but if one wishes to accurately portray the truth, one needs to distinguish the various causes and conditions in an ordered sequence.

Factors Promoting and Obstructing the Fruition of Kamma

The way in which the law of kamma manifests in people’s lives, determines various circumstances, and triggers responses from outside, is outlined in the Pali Canon as relying on four pairs of factors: the four accomplishments (sampatti) and the four defects (vipatti):⁶⁸

Sampatti may be translated as ’accomplishment’ or ’advantage’. It refers to the fulfilment of those factors affording an opportunity for good kamma to come to fruition, and preventing the effects of bad kamma to surface. In brief, they are favourable to the ripening of good kamma. They include:

1. Gati-sampatti: accomplishment of birth; fulfilment of birth; favourable environment. One is born in a favourable state or realm of existence, region, or country. In the present lifetime, one’s way of life is conducive to wellbeing or one lives in a supportive environment.

2. Upadhi-sampatti: accomplishment of the body; fulfilment of body; favourable or fortunate body. For instance: one has an attractive body and graceful appearance; one is endearing to others; one is healthy and strong.

3. Kāla-sampatti: accomplishment of time; fulfilment of time; favourable time. One is born in a time when one’s country is in a state of peace, with good leaders and virtuous citizens, when people praise righteousness and condemn evil. On an everyday level, one acts in a timely and opportune fashion. {273}

4. Payoga-sampatti: accomplishment of undertaking; fulfilment of undertaking; favourable activity. For example: one acts appropriately, in line with what is required; one’s actions correspond with one’s abilities and strengths; one acts thoroughly, decisively, and to one’s fullest capability. One is skilled at carrying out work.

Vipatti may be translated as ’defect’, ’weakness’, or ’disadvantage’. It refers to the shortcomings and flaws of various factors, which are unconducive to the fruition of good kamma and instead provide an opportunity for the effects of bad kamma to manifest. In brief, they are unfavourable factors triggering the ripening of bad kamma. They include:

1. Gati-vipatti: defect or failure as regards place of birth. One is born in an uncultivated, unfavourable state of existence, region, or country. One’s way of life is not conducive to wellbeing; one lives in an unsupportive environ-ment.

2. Upadhi-vipatti: defect or failure as regards the body. For example: one’s body is deformed, feeble, or unattractive; one’s appearance is repulsive; one is unhealthy, afflicted by various illnesses.

3. Kāla-vipatti: defect or failure as regards time. One is born in a time when one’s country is in a state of peril, calamity, or turbulence; the country’s leaders are immoral; the society is degenerate and full of oppression, praising the wicked and persecuting the virtuous. One acts in unseemly, inopportune ways.

4. Payoga-vipatti: defect or failure as regards undertaking. For example: one is engaged in wrongful activities; one’s actions do not correspond with one’s abilities and strengths; one makes effort in inappropriate ways; one’s efforts are half-baked.

Pair #1

1. Accomplishment of birth: one is born in a developed region and receives a good education. Although one’s inherent intelligence or degree of effort is low, one still gets more education and gains a higher position in society than someone with more intelligence and diligence who is born in the countryside. Or one may be born as a deva⁶⁹; however bad one’s character may be, one lives untroubled and in comfort.

2. Defect as regards birth: e.g.: a Buddha appears and teaches the Dhamma, but one is born in the outback or in hell, and one thus has no opportunity to listen to the Dhamma; one is intelligent but one is born in the wilderness of the so-called ’dark region’ (kāḷa-dīpa) and thus has no opportunity to become a learned member of academic circles; one lives in a land or community where other people do not appreciate one’s knowledge and skills, one does not fit in, and one is looked down on or persecuted; a virtuous and skilled person is in a position of work that does not complement his skills – he is thus a burden for others and is unhappy (this final example may also be accompanied by a defect as regards undertaking).⁷⁰

Pair #2

1. Accomplishment of the body: one has a beautiful and attractive physical appearance. Although one may have been born in a poor family or in a remote area, one’s physical appearance helps one to attain a state of honour, prestige, and happiness.

2. Defect as regards the body: one is born in a fortunate location or in an affluent family, but one is deformed or physically handicapped. One thus does not obtain the prestige or pleasure otherwise afforded by these circumstances.

When two people are matched in other attributes, in the case that physical appearance is a factor for consideration, an attractive or handsome person will often benefit over an unattractive or sickly person. Even in the case when physical appearance is not ostensibly a factor, it is normal for most people to incline towards someone with an attractive appearance. Those people with defects as regards the body must accept this truth of the world. They can reflect that only those who are endowed with exceptional qualities, surpassing ordinary human beings, are truly impartial and unbiased as regards physical attributes. {274}

Knowing this, those people with defective bodies need not be distraught. They should strive to cultivate other qualities that are exceptional and outstanding. They may need to make two or three times the effort to achieve this than the effort required by an attractive person to reach certain forms of success. The important thing is to not get discouraged. One is aware of what is lacking, and one hastens to strengthen those factors that can be improved. An understanding of one’s kammic situation is thus of benefit.

Pair #3

1. Accomplishment of time: one is an honest and virtuous person born at a time when one’s political leaders are morally upright and one’s society extols virtue. As a consequence, one is honoured and prospers, and one’s country is at peace. Wise people in such a society are able to share their knowledge and benefit others. Similarly, there may be a time when people cherish poetry; those who are skilled poets will flourish.

2. Defect as regards time: here, the opposite is true: at a time when society has grown corrupt and its leaders are devoid of righteousness, good people are not praised and they may even be abused. Even if one is intelligent and capable, it will be difficult to engage in constructive work. When one’s country is in turmoil because of war, few people are interested in those who advocate peaceful means. Similarly, at a time when people prefer crude, frenetic music, those people skilled at more subtle, tranquil forms of music will find little favour.

Pair #4

1. Accomplishment of undertaking: although one may not be endowed with much virtue or ability, one knows with whom to associate, one knows how to avoid those things that should be avoided, and one is able to forfeit that which should be forfeited. In this way one is able to prosper and one’s defects do not surface. Similarly, one may be skilled at counterfeiting documents, but one uses this skill in a positive way, for instance in examining legal evidence.

2. Defect as regards undertaking: e.g.: one possesses sufficient knowledge and one’s other personal attributes are favourable, but one is addicted to gambling and thus one is not hired for a specific job; one is superb at running and one has the potential to be a prized sprinter, but one uses this talent to snatch people’s belongings; one is an expert artisan but one performs some kind of office work for which one lacks skill.

For the most part, results at the level of one’s way of life (level 3, mentioned earlier) pertain to ’worldly things’ (loka-dhamma), which are subject to fluctuation and uncertainty; they are relatively superficial and do not touch upon the core of one’s life. Their degree of impact on one’s life depends on one’s level of attachment. If one is able to come to terms with these things, one’s happiness will remain steady, or one’s suffering will be minimized. For this reason, the Buddha encouraged people to develop wisdom accompanied by mindfulness, and to be diligent and heedful. In times of happiness one does not get carried away. In times of difficulty one does not become despondent or overly distraught and slip into immoral or destructive ways of conduct; rather, one alleviates the situation by way of wisdom and awareness.

When one still desires delightful and agreeable worldly things (iṭṭhārammaṇa), one acknowledges one’s own advantages (sampatti) and disadvantages (vipatti) – one’s strengths and weaknesses – and embraces the former while avoiding the latter. One then tries to reach desired goals and one benefits through wholesome actions, which bring about a profound stability to all areas of one’s life. One refrains from unwholesome conduct, because personal advantages and disadvantages are uncertain; when favourable times pass, any bad actions one may have committed bear fruit.

To sum up, when one is faced with various factors belonging to different laws (niyāma; both laws of nature and conventional laws), one should focus on cultivating goodness and integrity in relation to the law of kamma; acting in this way provides a degree of stability and security. Factors connected to other laws can then be applied with wisdom in a supplementary way, in so far as they are not harmful. If one is able to practise in this way, one is able to benefit from these four pairs of accomplishments and defects, and one is able to apply both the laws of nature and conventional laws to one’s advantage. {275}

Some people need to be reminded not to get caught up in such thoughts as: ’Why did he succeed, even though he didn’t do anything good?’ ’Why does nothing happen to her, even though she acted badly?’ ’Why doesn’t anything good happen to me, even though I have acted virtuously?’ One may fail to make a thorough inspection of factors linked with various laws (niyāma), and thus conclude: ’I don’t possess the intelligence to draw benefit from other sources, and even my inherited kammic factors are unfavourable.’ If one remains caught up in these kinds of thoughts, matters will most likely get worse.

According to the essential message of the Buddha’s teachings, people performing good deeds do not get stuck at the stage of expecting mundane personal rewards (loka-dhamma, i.e. material gain, honour, pleasure, and praise), because true wholesome actions spring from the wholesome roots of non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion. Such people act with relinquishment (cāga), abandoning unwholesome qualities in their hearts. By kindness and compassion they help others to be freed from suffering, and they promote a peaceful coexistence among people. They act with wisdom, in order to deepen an understanding of the truth, to realize awakening, and to establish the Dhamma as the guiding force for themselves and for society. This can be classified as the highest form of kamma; it is kamma performed in order to bring about the end of kamma, as referred to earlier.⁷¹

Longterm Effects of Kamma

The following material, on how kamma bears fruit in the longterm, for instance over many lifetimes, is one part of the description on how the fruits of kamma affect people’s lives; to a large extent it was covered in the previous section. The reason for distinguishing this material here is because many people show a special interest in this specific matter. Although this matter won’t be discussed here at length, it seems useful to offer some observations for the sake of study and contemplation.

When either wholesome or unwholesome intention arises in the mind, mental activity begins. The mind operates and is active. We can adopt terms from the material world and refer to this activity as the force of intention. Most people do not understand and are not even interested in how this force of intention operates and what other conditions are involved. They are only interested in the end results of the process.

The fruits of intention manifesting in the material world and in human society are clearly visible. There are many examples of how the force of intention manifests in the material world, especially in terms of various inventions and devices, from shoes to spaceships, axes to nuclear bombs, abaci to computers. Other examples include social systems and institutions, including government systems, economic systems, administrative systems, organization of work, etc.

These systems have a great deal of complexity. Indeed, the entire process of intention, along with the mechanics of the mind through which intention expresses itself or operates, is highly refined and complex. It is no less complex than the most subtle and refined inventions or systems created by it. {276}

Human beings possess ample knowledge about the history and development of various inventions and social systems created by the mind and originating with intention. Yet in respect to the nature of the mind and the way in which the mind is conditioned by intention, we possess a distinct lack of understanding. One can say that the workings of the mind remain a great mystery for human beings, even though they affect us directly and exert the greatest influence on our lives.

Due to this ignorance, when people encounter phenomena or situations that are the end results of volitional activities, they often have a disjointed understanding of cause and effect. They do not recognize the associated factors involved, or at least not comprehensively, and end up attributing or blaming various other things. Ignorant people do not acknowledge the law of kamma, i.e. they do not believe in the law of cause and effect, or in a natural causal process. The refusal to acknowledge the law of kamma, or the misplaced blaming of other factors, is then another level of volitional action (kamma), which has its own adverse effects, namely, one squanders the opportunity to improve oneself and to adapt those methods leading to desired results. More gravely, one may falsely accuse others of collusion or involvement, or perform other actions having more severe consequences.

In any case, the Buddha acknowledged that the intricacies of how volitional actions bear fruit is an extremely complex matter, beyond the power of thinking. People are unable to fathom the truth of this matter by way of thought. In the Pali Canon, this matter is classified as acinteyya (’imponderable’): a matter which shouldn’t be thought about.⁷² If one does not heed this warning and tries to unravel this complexity by thinking, there is a chance of going crazy. This does not mean that the Buddha forbids us to think about the fruits of kamma. It simply explains that this complexity is ’inconceivable’; it cannot be fully understood by way of reasoning. This matter can be understood, however, by way of realization. Furthermore, the madness ensuing from excessive pondering over this matter is not a punishment laid down by the Buddha; it is simply a natural result of unresolved and confused fretting.

Although this subject is classified as ’imponderable’, this does not mean we should not take an interest in it. We can engage with this subject according to our limited understanding, and gain confidence from such understanding. We are able to contemplate those things that lie within the field of our discernment, i.e, those things existing in the present moment, beginning with minor matters and extending to more significant, far-reaching ones. We can observe the effects of our thoughts and intentions. How do wholesome thoughts lead to positive results in our lives, and vice versa, how do unwholesome thoughts generate negative results and cause damage? How do these effects have wider consequences for other people, the society, and the world? And how do they rebound on our own lives? One begins to understand the complexity and subtlety of this multifaceted causal process, going beyond one’s initial assumptions, and one then gains a confidence in the causality inherent in nature.

An understanding of minor, short-term effects leads to an understanding of how things unfold in the longterm. Indeed, the longterm effects descend from and consist of the short-term effects. The longterm effects could not exist were it not for the short-term effects. Here, an understanding arises in line with the truth. A confidence in the natural causal process involving intention is precisely a confidence and trust in the law of kamma.

When one possesses trust in the law of kamma, whenever one desires particular results, one expects these to occur by way of intentional actions. One then proceeds to act in conformity with causes and conditions, with a thorough understanding of the factors involved. If one wishes for positive effects, both in respect to the law of kamma and in respect to worldly things (loka-dhamma), one makes a complete analysis of the various factors involved and then carefully generates the necessary conditions for these things to arise. {277}

This analysis is not restricted to a person’s internal conceptual activity; it applies also to external creative activity. People skilled at inventing or creating things do not only focus on the content of their own conceptualizations and intentions. They also take into account relevant factors from other laws (niyāma), for example: an architect uses artistic creative refinement to design a beautiful wooden house. When she uses this design to build a real house she needs to consider what kinds of hardwoods and softwoods are required for different parts of the house. No matter how beautiful the design, if she uses conifer wood where hardwood is required, the house may collapse and her project may fail. Another architect may have a beautiful design but use unattractive building materials and thus fail in his pursuit. Similarly, if a fashion designer gets caught up in his own exquisite mental designs without taking into consideration the climate of the country in question, say by producing beautiful clothes suitable for a cold climate but selling them in a hot climate, he too will fail in his endeavours.

Similarly, those people who are ’engineers’ or ’artisans’ designing a wholesome way of life should be prudent in relating to causes and conditions.

In the context of benefiting from the law of kamma, and ensuring that one progresses in a wholesome direction, it is necessary to establish a love of goodness (kusala-chanda) or a love of truth (dhamma-chanda). In spiritual training, people should be encouraged to cultivate such an aspiration and love for truth and goodness, say by wishing for one’s life to be pure and virtuous, desiring a virtuous society, wishing for all of those things one engages with to exist in a state of excellence and integrity, or for them to reach an optimal state, and wishing for the truth to pervade in all directions.⁷³

As long as people fail to have a love of truth and goodness, and are simply infatuated by the delightful things in the world, they will try to fool about with the law of kamma or to deceive the laws of nature. (In fact, they are unable to deceive the laws of nature; rather, they end up deceiving themselves.) As a consequence, they create an endless amount of harm to themselves, to society, and to the human race.

Rebirth

Many scholars claim that for ordinary people to believe in the law of kamma and to be established in moral conduct, they must accept the fruition of kamma over the longest span of time, i.e. from one birth to the next. They go on to say that for this reason one must prove the truth of rebirth, or at least show some substantiating evidence for rebirth.

With this objective, or simply to seek knowledge, scholars and other interested individuals have tried to explain the teaching of kamma and rebirth, by citing scientific principles like the law of conservation of energy, connecting them to the mental activity of volition, or they have cited various psychological doctrines.⁷⁴ Alternatively, they have sought evidence to prove the validity of recollection of past lives, or even engaged in ceremonies invoking the spirits of the deceased.⁷⁵ {278}

It is beyond the scope of this book to describe these explanations in detail. Those readers interested in these matters can look into the references cited above. Here, only some relevant observations and ideas will be presented on this subject.

It is a very reasonable premise that by proving to people the legitimacy of rebirth and of the next life, of the way in which kamma bears fruit in the longterm, many practical benefits will ensue. If people believe in rebirth and the longterm fruits of intentional actions, they are likely to be receptive to teachings on morality, to fear wrongdoing, and to undertake good deeds.

Those people who put forth this premise are generally well-intentioned and there need not be any problems for them to continue their research. Others can applaud their efforts in so far as their research is connected to reasoned arguments and facts. One only need beware that such research does not deviate into a path of gullibility, superstition, or misunderstanding. Examples of misguided research include: rather than clarifying mysterious matters, one enshrouds clearly verifiable matters in mystery and secrecy; or rather than empowering people by drawing upon the mysteries of the universe, one makes people more impotent by having them become dependent on external things.

Sound research can benefit academic studies in these matters. Having said this, this sort of research should be left to those scholars who have a particular interest in it. Most people need not get caught up in this activity. They can be kept informed of the proven research or of particular developments in this field from a distance, as an interested party. To wit, one should refrain from leading people into an obsession with this subject.

Likewise, scholars and researchers should not become overly preoccupied with past and future lives, to the extent of being biased and trying simply to prove the authenticity of other lifetimes, which takes importance away from the present moment and becomes a form of extreme view. One needs to recognize both the advantages and disadvantages of giving significance to this matter. If one overemphasizes it so that people excessively fear being born in an unhappy existence and crave to be born in a pleasant realm, this is tantamount to driving them to expect and desire future results. They will then only take an interest in those activities that are linked to reaping personal benefits in future lifetimes, and they will neglect those benefits and blessings that human beings should reach in this life.

If one is not circumspect and careful, the original aim of teaching people to fear the adverse effects of bad kamma, to reassure them that their good deeds now will bear good fruit even into future lifetimes, and to trust in the law of kamma, leads to an unrestrained pursuit for personal advantages in the next life. This generates greed and causes people to perform meritorious deeds as a form of profiteering.

An overemphasis on the positive and negative fruits of kamma experienced in future lifetimes also has the adverse effect of creating a disregard for the training in a love of truth (dhamma-chanda) or a love of goodness (kusala-chanda). This is a form of rejection or condemnation of human beings’ abilities, by claiming that people cannot abstain from evil or do good as a consequence of aspiring towards the pure and sublime. {279} Instead, they only abstain from evil and do good out of greed and a desire for personal rewards, and they neglect to cultivate a love of truth and goodness in a genuine way.

Although there is a lot of logic in the claim that if one provides clear evidence to people for the truth of rebirth, they will believe in it and be well-established in moral conduct, yet to actually wait for people to develop such moral conduct only after they see the evidence is unreasonable. This is because the if in the above sentence indicates that one cannot be sure when one will be able to fully succeed at proving this truth to others. Strictly speaking, one cannot validly use the expression ’provide clear evidence’ in regard to this matter, because no one is able to reveal the rebirth of one person to another. Rebirth is something that one must know and realize for oneself.

The expression ’provide clear evidence’ here simply refers to finding testimonials about rebirth and analyzing the facts. The heart of this matter corresponds to the imponderables (acinteyya), i.e. one is unable to comprehend this matter by way of logic and reasoning; it is beyond the scope of ordinary understanding. No matter how much evidence one provides on this subject to ordinary people, it remains on the level of faith or belief. The only difference between people is that some may disbelieve while others believe, or some may believe more than others. This being the case, there will remain those people who disbelieve, and even those believers may harbour doubt or skepticism. And those people who disbelieve also remain on the level of belief, that is, they believe that rebirth does not exist; they have not yet gained a clear understanding of this matter. Doubt and suspicion remains until one has done away with all doubt, by realizing stream-entry.

In sum, the attempt to present reasoned explanations and testimonials about rebirth to people can be beneficial (if such attempts do not conflict with other key Buddhist principles, for instance they do not make people dependent on external powers or lead them to seek help from mysterious forces). But the claim that practising the Dhamma or living a life in harmony with Buddhist principles requires proof regarding the matter of rebirth is unsuitable and incorrect.

Proper Relationship to the Next Life

Many people are fascinated and preoccupied with the questions whether past and future lives exist, or whether heaven and hell exist; this is because these matters remain mysteries obscured by people’s ignorance. It seems appropriate to say a bit more about these subjects, especially in regard to whether one is able to prove their authenticity.

First, according to a literal translation of the Buddhist scriptures, these things do indeed exist.

Second, there is no end in trying to prove the truth of these matters. No one is able to definitively convince someone else of the existence or non-existence of these things. Generally speaking, these matters remain on the level of belief. On the whole, neither those people who accept the truth of these things nor those people who deny them have a clear understanding of life’s course, both in regard to themselves and to others. They are both in the dark about the past, and they lack an understanding even of the circumstances surrounding being born in this lifetime. Similarly, they are unable to discern the future, even about what is going to occur tomorrow. {280}

Third, in terms of seeking proof of something, there exists the guideline that that which is visible needs to be seen by the eye, that which is audible needs to heard by the ear, that which is gustable needs to tasted by the tongue, etc. A dozen ears and tongues cannot verify a visible form, nor can a score of eyes and noses verify an audible sound. Moreover, if one is incapable of receiving certain wavelengths or frequencies, visible or audible perception will not occur. Certain things seen by a cat are invisible even to ten times the capability of a human eye; likewise, certain things heard by a bat are inaudible to ten times the capability of a human ear.

From one perspective, rebirth manifests as a direct experience; it is a phenomenon occurring in the mind. Therefore, it can only be verified by the mind itself. Attempts to prove the truth of rebirth may thus follow this sequence:

1. Verification by way of the mind: in this context the scriptures recommend using a mind that is well-concentrated. If one is disinclined to use this method, or if one fears that a mentally created image (nimitta) arising in concentration will be deceptive, one may use one of the following methods:

2. Verification by sacrificing one’s life: by definition, no one who is alive has experienced death in this lifetime. If one really wishes to prove the truth of rebirth, one must thus choose to die, but naturally, no one wishes to undergo such a test.

3. Verification by way of case histories and reasoned arguments: for example, one seeks out stories of those people who remember past lives and investigates these accounts; or one compares this matter with the verification of other aspects of truth, for instance in the example above of examining wavelengths of light or frequencies of sound. These rational presentations help to validate this matter, although, granted, the understanding remains on the level of belief, not direct knowledge.

Fourth, no matter how strong a person’s beliefs (or denials), or how much evidence is presented about rebirth, that which is undeniable and inescapable, and which acts as the link to the next life (whether one believes in it or not), is namely this present lifetime, which everyone must relate to and engage with.

Therefore, it is the present life that requires the majority of our care and attention. Buddhism is a religion of practice and application. The main focus is on how we behave in relation to this lifetime: how we conduct ourselves in the present and make the most of this life, in order to live well and, in the case that a future life does exist, to be confident that one’s goodness and virtue carries over into the future.

In this context, there are several observations and recommendations for one’s spiritual practice:

In the original Pali Canon, i.e. in the suttas, there are very few descriptions of past and future lives, and of heaven and hell, and in most cases these subjects are mentioned or referred to in brief.⁷⁶ If one compares these to the teachings pertaining to the present life, say to the development of morality, concentration, and wisdom, one sees that the percentage is very small.

In the canonical descriptions of the adverse effects of bad kamma and the blessings of good kamma, if there is a mention of being born in heaven or hell, these statements are generally added after mentioning several (sometimes up to ten) results that one is likely to experience in this lifetime. These present lifetime results may be followed by the phrase: ’With the breakup of the body, after death, one is reborn in the plane of misery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell’, or by the phrase: ’One is reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world.’⁷⁷ {281}

Note how the results in this life are given prime significance and are clearly distinguished; the results after death are merely tagged on to the end to complete the account. Moreover, the presentation of positive and negative effects is outlined as a description of facts according with a causal process. One need not beseech or wish for these effects to take place; they occur automatically. An awareness of this leads to confidence and assurance.

For those people who deny rebirth, as long as they have not truly penetrated the truth of this matter and remain on the level of belief (i.e. they believe rebirth to be untrue), they are unable to fully dispel deep-seated doubts in their own minds. When the strength and excitement of youth wanes and old-age begins to take hold, these people often begin to fear the possibility of a next life. If they have not prepared themselves in regard to virtue, they experience affliction. For the sake of assurance and ease, regardless of whether the next life is true or not, such people should spend their lives performing good deeds.

Those people who believe in rebirth should contemplate in the following manner:

They should base their belief solidly on the principle of causality, that is, they should view the results in a future life as a continuation of one’s state of mind established in this lifetime. Moreover, they should emphasize doing good in the present moment, in order to cultivate a wholesome life and state of mind, so that any possible future lives are also endowed with goodness and virtue.

With such an emphasis, one’s involvement with and expectation around future lives will be based securely in the present, and one will place greater importance on this lifetime. No matter how fascinated one may be with future lives, one still gives more significance to this life, and one does not perform good actions as a form of investment or pursuit of personal profit.

A sound belief in future lives helps to abandon or reduce a reliance on divine intervention or on external powers. This is because a genuine belief in future lives implies a belief in one’s own good actions. It leads to a confidence in one’s own wholesome actions acting as the cause for advancing and prospering in the round of rebirth (saṁsāra-vaṭṭa). A dependence on external powers, on the other hand, makes one more feeble, and it causes one to regress or fall behind in the round of rebirth. If someone has lapsed into such a dependence, he or she should hasten to step back and generate a sense of individual strength and authority.

Regardless of whether one believes or disbelieves in rebirth, one needs to reach the stage at which one abstains from evil and performs the good irrespective of one’s beliefs. If one is a believer, one acts without any expectations in regard to future lives, and if one disbelieves one simply abstains from doing bad. This stage can be reached by practising in the following ways:

1. One develops a genuine love of truth (dhamma-chanda) or a love of goodness (kusala-chanda). One cultivates an aspiration for truth, a love of virtue, a wish for refinement and purity, and a desire for things to reach their optimal state.⁷⁸

2. One develops an interest in profound internal bliss. An experience of such bliss in itself protects against evil, unskilful actions and supports wholesome actions. This is because one prerequisite for experiencing such bliss is an absence of immoral behaviour (duccarita) and an engagement with virtuous behaviour (sucarita). Moreover, the realization of such bliss curbs a level of infatuation with sense pleasure by which one is prone to performing wicked or unskilful acts. Having said this, in regard to profound mundane bliss, one still needs to exercise caution so that one does not indulge in it to the extent of undermining one’s efforts or of impeding one’s spiritual progress.⁷⁹ {282}

3. One develops wisdom and lives one’s life in accord with wisdom. One develops a comprehensive understanding of the world and of conditioned phenomena, to the extent of reaching an adequate level of freedom and independence. One is not captivated by material things or by sense objects to the extent that one would act immorally for their sake. One recognizes the happiness and unhappiness of other people and other creatures, giving rise to compassionate assistance; one is not inclined to oppress or harm others.

   This level of wisdom is reached by those individuals who have realized the transcendent (lokuttara-dhamma) and who have cultivated transcendent right-view (lokuttara-sammādiṭṭhi). At least, it is reached by those people who practise and conduct their lives in order to realize the transcendent.

   If one is unable to reach this level of wisdom, then one should develop faith, which is the preliminary stage for wisdom to arise. This faith is accompanied by understanding and is conducive to wisdom. Here, one believes in the path of wisdom and trusts in a life of freedom based on wisdom. Through one’s own efforts one gradually incorporates these principles of wisdom and compassion.⁸⁰

These three factors are interconnected and mutually supportive. In particular, the first factor, of developing a love of truth and goodness, is required for all wholesome activities, which act as the basis for factors two and three.

If one develops these three factors, the belief in actions bearing fruit in future lives reinforces one’s determination to do good and abstain from the bad. This belief, however, is not the decisive factor determining one’s wholesome actions.

If people’s spiritual practice is still unsteady and they are unable to develop these three factors, it is still better to maintain a belief in the fruits of kamma in future lives as an incentive for doing good and refraining from bad, than to indulge in sensual pleasures and seek out material things for personal gratification. Such an indulgence simply leads to mutual oppression, widespread wrongdoing, and personal and social misfortune. In any case, the belief in the fruits of kamma extending to future lives is designated as an aspect of ’mundane right-view’ (lokiya-sammādiṭṭhi), which acts as a link facilitating progress on the path of virtue.

Fruits of Kamma According to the Cūḷakammavibhaṅga Sutta

At this point, let us examine an important teaching by the Buddha contained in the Cūḷakammavibhaṅga Sutta, on the fruits of kamma resulting from the present and manifesting in future lives. The gist of this teaching is as follows:

Although this sutta describes the results one may experience in future lives, it emphasizes actions performed in this present life. In particular, it emphasizes those actions performed regularly or consistently in one’s daily life, which help to shape one’s state of mind, character traits, and personality, and which function as direct causes for specific results. It does not focus on extravagant or exaggerated results, in the sense of performing a single action, say of making a donation, and then receiving some boundless rewards or being able to wish for whatever one desires. Such a selfish focus leads people to perform good deeds similar to investing money in a bank and idly awaiting the interest, or playing the lottery once and expecting an enormous prize. People then neglect those general or everyday wholesome actions outlined in this sutta. (See Note The Creator and Rituals in the Subha Sutta)

In sum, the teachings in this sutta maintain the key principle that a consideration of fruits of kamma ripening in a future life should be based on a confidence and understanding that these results rely on a quality of mind and a quality of behaviour established in this present life. These longterm future results are directly connected to the present in line with cause and effect.

One way of analyzing this matter is to say that any valid belief connected to future lives must help to reinforce and stabilize one’s love of truth (dhamma-chanda). If, on the other hand, one’s beliefs merely promote greed and craving, one can confidently state that they are false beliefs and in need of revision. {285}

Additional Matters Pertaining to Kamma

There are several more important points pertaining to kamma. Some of these points help to prevent serious misunderstandings from arising, while others help to complete one’s understanding of this subject.

What is the Cause for Happiness and Suffering?

Several teachings by the Buddha emphasize how volitional actions (kamma) and their results proceed in line with cause and effect. For example: ’Conditioned by ignorance, a person produces volitional acts of the body (kāya-saṅkhāra) … volitional acts of speech (vacī-saṅkhāra) … volitional acts of mind (mano-saṅkhāra), either self-generated … or owing to other agents … either knowingly … or unknowingly.’⁸¹ Similarly, the Buddha refuted the doctrine of karmic autogenesism (attakāra-vāda), which states that happiness and suffering are entirely self-determined, and the doctrine of karmic heterogenesism (parakāra-vāda), which states that happiness and suffering are entirely caused by external factors.⁸² One must investigate each distinctive process in order to determine the degree of involvement by oneself and/or by external factors. One should not make a definitive judgement based on a simple glance or analysis.

These teachings help to prevent the extreme misunderstanding of kamma that all things arise exclusively due to one’s own actions, without taking into account external or environmental factors that play a participatory role.

Here it is important to distinguish between the principle of kamma as a natural law and kamma from the perspective of ethical conduct. So far the discussion has focused on kamma as a natural law, which pertains to natural dynamics of volitional action, and which incorporate all of the myriad causes and conditions involved.

The teachings on kamma related to ethics, however, are practical and to be applied. They are mainly focused on individual people, who should take full and entire responsibility for their intentional actions. For these teachings to fulfil their true objective, they begin by emphasizing personal responsibility. One example is the Buddha’s teaching: ’One is one’s own refuge.’

Besides emphasizing the need to help oneself and to initiate actions, these teachings also point to a relationship to other people’s actions. That is, for other people to successfully offer assistance to oneself, one must first establish self-reliance. One’s self-reliance will influence the degree of assistance others are willing to give, and it also influences one’s own response to such external assistance.

Through proper investigation one sees how the principle of kamma as a natural law and the principle of kamma in relation to ethics are not contradictory; rather they are mutually supportive. {286}

Misinterpretations of Kamma

There are three wrong views pertaining to happiness and suffering that need to be distinguished from the Buddhist teaching on kamma:

1. Past-action determinism (pubbekatahetu-vāda; pubbekata-vāda): the belief that all happiness and suffering is a result of past kamma.

2. Theistic determinism (issaranimmānahetu-vāda; issaranimmita-vāda): the belief that all happiness and suffering is created by a supreme God.

3. Indeterminism (or accidentalism; ahetu-apaccaya-vāda; ahetu-vāda): the belief that all happiness and suffering arises dependent on arbitrary acts of fate, without cause or condition.

These wrong views are described in this sutta passage:

The first doctrine (of past-action determinism) was held by the Nigaṇṭhā (Jains), as confirmed by this sutta passage:

Here is a similar sutta passage:

These teachings by the Buddha prevent people from falling into extreme or unreasonable views, whereby they only understand kamma in the context of actions performed in the past. By holding to such views people simply sit around waiting for the results of past kamma to determine their destiny. They do not consider how to actively improve themselves in the present. These misunderstandings develop into pernicious forms of wrong view, as described in the passages above.

Moreover, one can clearly see from these words that the Buddha regarded determined effort to be at the heart of all his teachings on kamma; the value of these teachings is determined by their relationship to effort.

These teachings by the Buddha do not negate past kamma; it is acknowledged that past kamma is involved in the causal process and influences the present moment. The past and the present are both part of the dynamic of cause and effect. The key principle here is that past kamma is connected to causality; it is not related to some kind of presumed supernatural reality to which one must entrust one’s destiny. A clear understanding of Dependent Origination, in particular, will help to dispel any doubts about this matter. {288}

This may be compared to someone who climbs up a three storey building. It is irrefutable that the arrival at the third floor is dependent on that person’s action – the act of walking up the stairs. And once up on the third floor, it is impossible for this person to reach out his hand and touch the ground or to get in a car and drive around as if he was on the road. These similarly irrefutable facts are also dependent on his climbing up to the third floor. In the same way, were he to feel exhausted from climbing and unable to go up or down until he had a rest, that exhaustion too would be dependent on his actions.

It is beyond question that the arrival at the third floor, the range of activities available at this location, and the need to engage with whatever objects are found here, are all consequences of a previous action – of having walked up the stairs. But whatever that person then does, whether it entails interacting with those things found in this place, having a rest, or descending the stairs, are all based on new decisions. There is a range of possibilities, and each choice leads to specific results. Although the previous actions may still be exerting an effect, for example the man may be tired from walking, it is up to him whether to give in to this tiredness and have a rest or whether to respond to it in some other way. All of these factors, including past kamma, are part of a causal process.

Based on an understanding of Dependent Origination, one can benefit from past kamma, by drawing lessons from it, strengthening reasoned discernment, and increasing an understanding of various phenomena, including an understanding of one’s current mental disposition, so that one can make plans for the present and act to bring about good results in the future.

Purifying Kamma

The Buddha taught:

These teachings by the Buddha are presented to help clarify some of the subtle details of the fruition of kamma. They act as a precaution against establishing an opinion on kamma too quickly or interpreting its meaning too simply. Having said this, these are only a few examples of the teachings on kamma. {290}

Redeeming Kamma

Paṭikamma is an important term in the teachings on kamma. Based on its original meaning, or as a play on its original meaning, it may be translated as ’to redeem kamma’. In this sense it refers to restoration, rectification, rehabilitation, amendment, or the abandoning of bad kamma and doing good kamma instead.

Paṭikamma was originally a common, everyday term used in the sense of repairing something damaged, correcting something defective, righting something wrong, or even in relation to curing an illness.

In the context of Dhamma teachings, the term paṭikamma refers essentially to an acknowledgement of one’s own past mistakes, a relinquishment of unwholesome and harmful actions, a turning away from bad actions and a resulting performance of good actions, self-improvement through good deeds, and rectifying one’s faults in order to arrive at integrity and completeness.

In relation to the monastic community, the Buddha applied the principle of paṭikamma for laying down two kinds of disciplinary prescriptions: expiation of offences (āpatti-paṭikamma) and a formal invitation for admonishment (pavāraṇā-kamma). Moreover, in a wider context, encompassing both renunciants and laypeople, the Buddha emphasized performing redress accompanied by an awareness and confession of one’s wrongdoing (referred to as confession of one’s transgressions – accaya-desanā), which is considered a practice corresponding to the code of the noble ones (ariya-vinaya).

In the Dhammavinaya⁸⁵ there are thus three basic procedures for rectifying one’s faults within a social context:

1. Expiation of offences (āpatti-paṭikamma): atonement; repentance. This is a disciplinary prescription for the monastic community. If a bhikkhu or bhikkhuni has committed an offence, he or she is aware of this transgression and discloses it to others. He or she openly renounces such misdeeds and determines not to repeat them. One informs others of this determination in order to be restrained in the future.

   This standard is applied even when someone has doubts. For example, on the Uposatha Day (’observance day’ – the full and new-moon days), if a bhikkhu suspects that he may have incurred an offence, he informs another bhikkhu in this way: ’Venerable sir, I have doubts in regard to an offence of such-and-such a name. When these doubts vanish, the offence will have been atoned for.’⁸⁶

2. Formal invitation for admonishment (pavāraṇā-kamma). This too is a disciplinary prescription for the monastic community. Abbreviated to the term Pavāraṇā, it constitutes an annual ceremony – a formal act of the sangha (saṅgha-kamma) – performed at the end of the Rainy Season retreat (vassa). After having lived together for the Vassa, the resident bhikkhus or bhikkhunis convene and each individual makes a formal invitation to the gathering. Beginning with the most senior member of the community, each individual states: ’Venerable friends, I make a formal invitation to the sangha. If you have seen, heard, or suspected (that I have made any mistakes or acted in any harmful ways), may you admonish me out of compassion. Having recognized (these mistakes), I will rectify them.’⁸⁷ {291}

3. Confession of one’s transgressions (accaya-desanā). This is a principle of conduct integral to the noble discipline (ariya-vinaya), applicable to both members of the monastic community and to laypeople. The gist of this principle is that when one commits an offence, makes a mistake, or behaves badly in relation to someone else, one makes amends by asking for forgiveness. Expressing one’s remorse to others for transgressions and offences, and requesting others to acknowledge the recognition of one’s mistakes in order for one to make amends and to show restraint in the future, is growth in the noble discipline.

   There are many stories in the Tipiṭaka of laypeople, and even of monks, who act offensively towards the Buddha. When they recognize their mistakes, they confess and ask forgiveness from him. The Buddha would answer by saying that he accepts their apology if they recognize the harm in their transgressions committed by way of delusion or stupidity, and if they make amends. He would reiterate how acknowledging one’s mistakes, making amends, and being careful in the future is growth in the noble discipline.

   Take for example the archer who was hired to assassinate the Buddha. He went to express his remorse to the Buddha, who stated: ’Because you see the harm in that which is harmful, and make genuine amends, I accept and acknowledge your mistake. For anyone, to discern the harm in the harmful and to make righteous amends by afterwards showing caution, is growth in the noble discipline.’⁸⁸

This principle of rectification (paṭikamma) is a way of applying the law of kamma for spiritual development. One develops one’s intentional conduct at least to the extent of making amends for past misdeeds so that one’s future actions are improved and bad actions are replaced by good actions. One does not sit by idly due to a fear of generating kamma, as is espoused by the doctrine of the Nigaṇṭhā. And very importantly, after making mistakes, one does not fret, bemoan, get depressed, or get caught up in the past, which only compounds unwholesome tendencies, leads to missed opportunities, and increases suffering.

Having made mistakes, one recognizes them for what they are. One does not get caught up in or immobilized by the emotions of distress or remorse. Rather, one seeks knowledge and relies on wisdom. Having recognized one’s faults, one determines to rectify them or to make amends. This accords with the principles praised by the Buddha. It also accords with the principle of heedfulness (appamāda). Rectification (paṭikamma) supports heedfulness, which is a key spiritual factor leading to spiritual growth and perfection.

The following verses by the Buddha in the Dhammapada complement this subject of redemption and rectification. The same verses were uttered by Ven. Aṅgulimāla while enjoying the bliss of liberation after he was ’reborn’ in the noble discipline by realizing the fruit of arahantship:

Kamma Leading to the End of Kamma

One of the earlier classifications of kamma (see above) divides kamma into four kinds, according to the relationship between actions and their results:⁹⁰

1. Dark actions with dark results.

2. Bright actions with bright results.

3. Actions both dark and bright, with results both dark and bright.

4. Actions neither dark nor bright, with results neither dark nor bright, and conducive to the end of kamma.

So far, the descriptions of the fruits of kamma have been restricted to the first three kinds of kamma listed above, which can be simply defined as ’good and bad kamma’. There remains thus the fourth kind of kamma.

Because the fruition of kamma in terms of this fourth factor is entirely different from the first three kinds, it needs to be distinguished.

Many people, including Buddhists themselves, express an interest only in the first three kinds of kamma and neglect the fourth kind, even though this final factor is an essential Buddhist principle that leads to the true goal of Buddha-Dhamma.

Bright and dark kamma, or good and bad kamma, manifests in myriad forms, which can be classified within the framework of the ten wholesome and unwholesome paths of action (kusala- and akusala-kammapatha), e.g.: destroying life, stealing, sexual misconduct, harmful or malicious speech, etc., along with the opposite wholesome forms of action. Such actions cause people to reap the various positive and negative fruits described earlier. They determine people’s way of life, prompting them to perform further wholesome and unwholesome deeds and to revolve in the wheel of rebirth (saṁsāra-vaṭṭa).

Fruition associated with the fourth kind of kamma is diametrically opposed to that of the first three kinds. That is, it is volitional action that does not lead to an accumulation of kamma in the future. This kind of kamma leads to the end of kamma, to a freedom from kamma, to the cessation of kamma. It does not produce more kamma.

Kamma leading to the end of kamma refers to actions in harmony with those principles bringing about a realization of the highest goal of Buddha-Dhamma. From the perspective of the Four Noble Truths this refers to the fourth noble truth, i.e. the Eightfold Path, but one may equally describe it by other formats, say the seven factors of enlightenment (bojjhaṅga) or the threefold training of moral conduct (sīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā).

Occasionally, this fourth kind of kamma is described in relation to the other three kinds, as the intention to abandon these three. This refers to those actions accompanied by an intention to bring about the non-arising of these three former kinds of kamma. In regard to ’root cause’, this refers to those actions springing from non-greed (alobha), non-hatred (adosa), and non-delusion (amoha).

A discussion of kamma is often connected to the subject of pleasure (sukha; ’happiness’) and pain (dukkha; ’suffering’), because intentional actions bear fruit as pleasure or pain. As long as there is kamma, one must spin around in the vortex of pleasure and pain. {293} Any state intermingled by pleasure and pain is not free from suffering and is thus by definition not the supreme, flawless state. In sum, kamma is linked to suffering and is a cause for suffering.

In any case, this preceding paragraph refers specifically to the first three kinds of kamma. The fourth kind of kamma is an exception, because it is kamma leading to the end of kamma.

Good kamma bears fruit as happiness, but this happiness is mixed up with suffering and may be a cause for suffering. The fourth kind of kamma leads to a complete freedom from suffering. Moreover, while one performs this fourth kind of kamma, one does not experience suffering. On the contrary, one experiences a full and genuine form of happiness.

Other religious traditions at the time of the Buddha, in particular the doctrine of the Nigaṇṭhas, also contain teachings on the end of kamma.

The doctrine of the Nigaṇṭhas teaches the principles of past kamma (pubbekata-vāda), of the destruction of kamma (karma-kshaya), and of causing oneself hardship through extreme ascetic practices (tapa; tapo-kamma).

If one is unable to clearly distinguish these three principles from Buddhist teachings, there will arise confusion and misunderstanding. But if one is able to make this distinction, one will gain a clearer understanding of Buddha-Dhamma.

The doctrine of the Nigaṇṭhas is as follows:

The Nigaṇṭhas believed that everything one experiences is a result of past kamma. In order to bring suffering to an end, one must destroy all kamma by burning away mental defilements through extreme ascetic practices. In this fashion, previous kamma is dispelled. Moreover, one must refrain from creating any new kamma.

Buddhism, on the contrary, teaches that previous kamma is one factor in a causal process. One must understand this process as it truly is in order for one’s spiritual practice to proceed well. The end of suffering is possible by way of action, yet this action must be correct. It is kamma leading to the end of kamma.

In order to eliminate kamma, instead of remaining idle or passive, Buddhist practitioners must persevere and make determined and diligent effort. This effort is accompanied by wisdom, which leads to a freedom from the power of craving and ignorance.

Here are the main attributes of kamma leading to the end of kamma: {294}

1. It is the path leading to the cessation of kamma (kammanirodhagāminī-paṭipadā). Although it leads to the end of kamma, it is itself one form of kamma.

2. It is referred to as neither dark nor bright (or neither white nor black); its results also are neither dark nor bright.

3. It originates from non-greed (alobha), non-hatred (adosa), and non-delusion (amoha). By its very nature it prevents evil actions, because it is free from any causes or conditions leading to serious wrongdoing.

4. It is accompanied by wisdom and understanding, which discerns the true benefits and harm of things. It is a virtuous and reasoned form of action, which enhances one’s life and is conducive to wellbeing.

5. It is a truly wholesome and favourable form of action, because effort, mindfulness, and wisdom act as supporting factors and directly conduct the activities. There is no opportunity for craving to spur people into selfishly harming others or to prevent people from acting due to an attachment to personal pleasure.

6. It is wholesome action referred to as ’transcendent wholesomeness’ (lokuttara-kusala). The commentaries refer to it as ’Path intention’ (magga-cetanā) or ’Path knowledge (magga-ñāṇa). It is called kamma leading to the end of kamma because it brings about the non-production or non-generation of kamma.

7. In terms of formal principles of Dhamma practice, this kamma refers to the Eightfold Path – the fourth noble truth – which leads to the cessation of suffering (dukkhanirodhagāminī-paṭipadā). According to the circumstances, however, it may also be referred to by other terms, e.g. the seven factors of enlightenment (bojjhaṅga) or the threefold training, or by such general terms as ’intention for abandoning the three (former) kinds of kamma’.

In regard to item 5., note that many people harbour the misunderstanding that craving (taṇhā) is solely a motivating force for action: the greater a person’s craving, the the more he or she will act with a sense of urgency. If one has no craving, one will be devoid of a motivation to act. One will remain idle and perhaps fall into laziness.

This misunderstanding results from an incomplete view of human nature. It can create serious damage, for oneself, for society, and for one’s natural environment.

In fact, craving is a motivation for both action and inaction. It is a motivating force for action in the case that one seeks sense objects for selfish gratification. In such cases, there tends to be competition and conflict between people, causing harm and distress for society.

But in those circumstances in which one should act for the sake of goodness, or for the sake of personal or social welfare, but whereby one does not obtain things for personal gratification, craving is a motivation for inaction. This is because craving leads to an infatuation in sensual delight and enjoyment. Even an excessive delight in sleeping or other forms of self-indulgence hinder one from performing appropriate actions. Craving here is a cause for laziness. And the greater one’s ignorance – one’s failure to understand the value and benefits of specific actions – the more that craving will lead to idleness and apathy.

In sum, craving is either a motivation for harmful actions or a motivation for indolence and inertia, depending on the means by which one’s gratification and pleasure is rewarded and satisfied. {295}

Actions that enhance the quality of life or increase true wellbeing are distinct from the enjoyment or attachment to sense gratification, and indeed they often require a relinquishment of personal pleasure. Such actions do not stem from craving (unless one has established secondary preconditions). Rather, they spring from wisdom, which discerns the true value of such actions, and which generates a delight for performing them.

The delight or desire for action here is referred to in Pali as chanda (in full, it is called ’wholesome desire’ – kusala-chanda, or ’desire for truth’ – dhamma-chanda). Chanda is the true motivation for those actions enhancing the quality of life or increasing wellbeing.

Actions impelled by wholesome desire, however, may be impeded or offset by craving (taṇhā), which indulges in inertia or becomes infatuated by objects of sensual gratification. Under such circumstances craving leads to suffering, because many of one’s actions are performed with a sense of resistance and coercion.

If, however, one has a clear discernment of an action’s true value, and the strength of wholesome desire is sufficient to escape from the obstructive force of craving, besides functioning as the motivation for action, wholesome desire will lead to happiness. This happiness is spacious and expansive, unlike the restricted pleasure derived from craving. It enables one to act with joy.

Moreover, fully supported and guided by effort (viriya), mindfulness (sati), and wisdom (paññā), one will develop concentration (samādhi) in one’s activities. It is precisely this form of action that is referred to as kamma leading to the end of kamma.

The dynamic of this form of action may be outlined simply in this way: whenever one acts in line with the Eightfold Path or the seven factors of enlightenment (or some other group of spiritual factors, depending on the circumstances), whereby one is guided by wisdom, craving vanishes, because it has no opportunity to function. Similarly, greed, hatred, and delusion do not appear.

With the absence of craving, and divested of greed, hatred and delusion, there are no volitional actions that produce negative repercussions for one’s life. Without such negative repercussions one is free from suffering. Whereas formerly one was enslaved by the dictates of craving, now one’s life is guided by wisdom and one develops self-mastery and true independence.

For further clarity, here are some passages by the Buddha on the topic of kamma leading to the end of kamma:

Social or Collective Kamma

People often pose the question whether social or collective kamma exists. Some people claim that kamma is restricted to an individual; the kamma generated by an individual pertains only to that person: the person who sows the seed, reaps the fruit. Kamma therefore only exists on an individual level; it is a private matter. In sum, social or collective kamma does not exist. Holding to such a view, however, may be a form of delusion.

When faced with such questions it is not always necessary to answer them directly. Sometimes, it suffices to share specific principles on this subject with the questioners, and thus allow them to dispel their own doubts.

What is kamma? As most students of Buddhism are aware, kamma is action, specifically action generated by intention (cetanā). Indeed, the Buddha stated that kamma is intention (or intention is kamma).

In terms of the individual, whoever performs kamma – whoever is the owner of a volitional deed – experiences its fruit, the results of intention. From this perspective, kamma is an individual matter. If red dye is added to a glass of water, the water is red; if green dye is added to another glass, the water is green. The two glasses are clearly separate from one another.

Human beings are distinct from material objects found in nature, insofar as they perform volitional actions. All human affairs and occupations – building, agriculture, crafts, tailoring, etc. – are a consequence of human intention. They follow the volitional designs of human beings.

Collectively, the myriad activities and enterprises performed by human beings are referred to as human society or the human world. Human society comprises the world of human volitional activity, directed and determined by intention. The human world is thus a world of kamma. {300}

In brief, kamma is a matter pertaining to human beings; human matters are equivalent to kamma. Individual kamma does exist, yet when one examines kamma from a broader perspective, kamma pertains to all human activities and is the catalyst for the formation of human society. Generally speaking, one need not differentiate the kamma of individual people and the kamma of society, or to distinguish between kamma on the personal level and kamma on the social level. Instead of making that distinction, one should distinguish kamma, all of which pertains to human beings, from matters dealing with material objects, the natural environment, trees and plants, etc.

Although each person leads an individual life, the very engagement and interaction with others is the basis for society. Similarly, although everyone performs individual kamma, when people live together and perform volitional actions towards, or in collaboration with, others, a specific kind of social kamma is created. When viewing kamma in this broad sense, one sees that it encompasses both individual human beings all the way up to the entire human society. For this reason, except for the purpose of unique considerations, it is unnecessary to distinguish between individual and social kamma.

Take the example of a village in which the residents are farmers and sustain a decent living by work in the fields. One day a gambler skilled at cock-fighting visits the village and displays his craft. He drums up interest in others, encouraging them to engage in cock-fighting. This is his own intentional action, and he will receive the fruits of acting in this way. Here, the perspective is on the individual level. A further analysis reveals that before long almost every head of the household in this village adopts this new activity, delighting in the joys of cock-fighting, and they neglect their work. Each individual who acts in this way likewise receives the fruits of his or her intentional actions.

A broader perspective of the entire village, however, reveals the collective fruit of a change in lifestyle among a large portion of the villagers, including an increase in alcohol consumption and theft. The entire fortune of the village, even including the physical environment, undergoes an alteration as a consequence of these actions.

By examining this series of events one is able to distinguish between those matters pertaining to an individual and those pertaining to the community as a whole. In terms of the formal teachings, a broader perspective reveals how the set of conditions (paccayākāra) are naturally interconnected.

Many Buddhists may have heard the Pali adage: kammunā vattatī loko, which may be translated as ’the world turns by way of kamma’. It is important to understand the deeper meaning of this teaching. The ’world’ here refers to human society. Let us examine how the human world proceeds according to kamma.

This passage is found in the Vāseṭṭha Sutta, in which the Buddha teaches the principle of kamma in order to repudiate the caste system of the brahmins.

The brahmins held the doctrine that the God Brahma created the world and set up a definitive social system for human beings, determining the division into the four castes, of khattiya (kings, rulers), brāhmaṇa (brahmins), vessa (merchants, traders), and sudda (manual workers). Having been born into one of these social classes, one had to remain in that class for the rest of one’s life; there was no way to alter one’s status.

The Buddha refuted this doctrine, stating that the world of human beings proceeds according to kamma. He emphasized those intentional actions that are performed on a regular basis, becoming the ingrained way of life of an individual or the tradition of a community. This refers in particular to people’s work or profession (in Pali the term ’kamma’ often refers to an occupation or profession).

People’s work and occupations are precisely what is meant by the term kamma in the phrase ’the world turns by way of kamma’. The world of human beings does not follow the dictates of the God Brahma, nor is it predetermined in any sort of unyielding or inflexible way. The world turns as a consequence of the work and activities intentionally chosen and undertaken by human beings themselves. {301}

Although the Vāseṭṭha Sutta has been cited in other chapters of Buddhadhamma, the subject material under discussion was different. Here are the passages relevant to this context:

In sum, according to the Buddhist teachings, human society manifests and proceeds according to people’s work and occupations and the way in which people live their lives. It is not ultimately dependent on a caste system based on one’s birth and family, which the brahmins claim was prescribed and created by Brahma.

As mentioned earlier, the principle of kamma is one aspect to the teaching on Dependent Origination. In the chapter on Dependent Origination, it was mentioned how the Buddha described a mode of conditionality (paccayākāra) in terms of how social problems originate. One can label this process ’Dependent Origination in regard to social affliction’.

The problem of individual suffering and the problems of society are all problems linked to, or arising as result of, human beings; they are interconnected and part of a whole. Individual problems spread outwards, creating social problems, which may then turn around and intensify individual problems. Therefore, the scriptures do not emphasize a distinction between these various kinds of kammic processes.

Of the three kinds of kamma – physical, verbal, and mental kamma – the Buddha stated that mental kamma produces the greatest consequences. And of all the factors of mental kamma, the one given special emphasis is ’view’ (diṭṭhi), namely, a person’s way of thinking, belief system, opinions, ideology, religious beliefs, ideals, etc.

An example of the impact views have on society is that religious and spiritual leaders have been able to create revolutionary events and changes throughout history by proclaiming their ideas, causing others to endorse, undertake, practise, and spread these teachings.

The driving force behind every society and civilization is a collection of views and beliefs. And the fortunes, both positive and negative, of human societies are a consequence of such mental kamma performed by people living in these societies.

The following passage by the Buddha confirms the juxtaposition of how views are volitional actions arising in the mind, while at the same time having a tremendous bearing on society and the world: {302}

In general terms, one may judge religious leaders, intellectuals, politicians, etc., who influence society through sharing their ideas, by the fruits of their actions, using the standard found in the Buddha’s description of the attributes of a ’great man’ (mahā-purisa): ’He is practising for the welfare and happiness of many people; he is one who has established many people in the noble way, of being endowed with wholesome and virtuous qualities.’⁹³ This corresponds with the frequently cited Buddhist maxim: ’act for the welfare and happiness of the manyfolk, for the compassionate assistance of the world’ (bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya lokānukampāya).

To reiterate, kamma is a matter pertaining to human beings. All other matters related to human beings, including those dynamics present in the human mind, involve other laws of nature and similarly proceed according to causes and conditions. But it is precisely kamma – volitional thoughts, speech, and actions – that is a unique and inherent quality of the human state of existence. One can say that human life is characterized by volitional actions (kamma).

The expression ’social kamma’ or ’collective kamma’ may be misleading. It is more apt to say ’human kamma’, and then to distinguish between kamma dealing with an individual and kamma dealing with society, or kamma bearing fruit for an individual and kamma extending outwards and creating specific social conditions.

The most important matters affecting society are those actions performed by individuals when relating and associating to one another. The circumstances of individuals, or of society as a whole, are a consequence of people’s volitional actions. People’s thoughts, speech, and actions condition human society. The world turns because of kamma.

As mentioned earlier, the essence of kamma is intention. The world is thus shaped and moulded by human intention. A primary form of intentional activity on the social level, guided by human intelligence, is the establishment of conventional rules – a form of mutual agreement – in order to assist with social engagements and relationships. {303}

With wisdom guiding intention, human beings are able to participate as a vital factor in the natural, causal process, in order to alter the course of events in a way that fits with their desires. This participation is particularly effective in the context of establishing a system of social conventions, which lie at the heart of any society.

Here, wisdom has an understanding of Dhamma – the truth of nature or the laws of nature. Intention, the key factor of the law of kamma, applies this understanding to formulate a system of social conventions (vinaya). The society receives the fruits of these volitional actions, according to the level of wisdom and the quality of the mind inherent in those who formulate these conventions. This is the link between the laws of nature and human conventions, in particular the link between the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma) and conventional laws (sammati-niyāma). A true civilization is only created when people are able to understand and reach this balance between the truth (Dhamma) and conventional prescriptions (vinaya).

Among public officials entrusted with specific social duties, there may be those who seek out personal advantage and profit. Other people may live out their lives outside of any formally appointed public position, yet be fully dedicated to the welfare of society. If one understands the principle of kamma, one will be able to distinguish in these cases which matters pertain to individual kamma and which to social kamma.

Kamma in the Context of Conventional Laws

When people live together, forming communities and societies, it is necessary for there to be a system of communication. Human beings draw on their ingenuity to establish units or means of shared understanding, which they collectively acknowledge, uphold, and apply.

These shared and agreed-upon conventions are essential for any society to thrive and to reach a stage one may refer to as a ’culture’ or ’civilization’. In other words, every true civilization is based on such conventions.

A primary and vital form of convention pertains to speech, enabling people to communicate with one another. This gives rise to words and languages, which act as the medium for exchanging ideas. Based on these conventions of speech is another layer of social prescriptions, i.e. the act of naming things.

Besides the conventions of speech and nomenclature, people also set down prescriptions dealing with shared activities and actions, resulting in rules and regulations, laws, codes of discipline, and guidelines for behaviour.

And aside from these agreed-upon conventions dealing with common actions and activities, there are further prescriptions attending to the question of what society should do when someone transgresses the rules, regulations, etc. These are matters to do with administrative power and punishment.

In order for these agreed-upon prescriptions to be truly effective, certain individuals are appointed and supervisory systems established to ensure that the rules and regulations are obeyed. This is how governance and administration is created.

In order for the various conventions, both in regard to speech (including formal designations) and to actions, to truly function as they were intended and to exist as an integrated unit, a form of maintenance and management is required. Such an integrated system is referred to as ’vinaya’.

The meaning of the term vinaya encompasses the establishment of conventions, the management of affairs in accord with conventions, say by maintaining a code of discipline, and the setting down of rules in accord with these conventions. {304}

The term vinaya thus has three layers of meaning: first, the establishment of a code of living or a system for regulating human activities; second, the specific data or subject material stipulating or defining suitable and unsuitable behaviour contained in such codes or systems; and third, the supervision and management of behaviour so that it accords with such codes or systems.

As mentioned earlier, conventional forms and structures lie at the heart of human societies and act to define them. A code of discipline (vinaya) helps to accomplish the objectives of society and to fulfil the advantages of a chosen set of conventions. Therefore, on a basic level, a code of discipline supports conventions and safeguards society.

On a deeper level, however, it is important to realize that such codes of discipline do not merely exist to control people, to maintain peace and order, or to ensure that people act in conformity with established forms and structures. These codes should be used to provide people with an opportunity to improve their lives. They should promote the mutual support and assistance among people, and to enable society to be a conducive venue for spiritual development for everyone.

Note that social conventions, and the regulatory codes truly giving form to such conventions, are created by human beings and may thus be imprecise and even flawed. The reason that they may not be flawed – that they are grounded in truth – is because they are linked to essential realities at a deeper level acting as a foundation.

What are these essential realities acting as a foundation? They are those natural phenomena – things that exist in nature – which in Pali are referred to as dhamma.

This term dhamma has a broad, all-inclusive meaning. In this context it may refer to all natural phenomena (also referred to as sabhāva or sabhāva-dhamma); or it may refer to systems and structures inherent in nature – to laws of nature.

It is precisely these real and actual phenomena that are the essence of human conventions; they act as the reference points and give meaning to such conventions. Without these reference points, human conventions are faulty and effectively futile.

The laws of nature governing such phenomena – the systems of interrelated causes and conditions – are a foundation for the codes of conduct (vinaya) established by human societies. If these codes, social systems, and structures are incongruous with the causes and effects inherent in these natural processes – these laws of nature – they will be flawed and are bound to come to naught.

Human beings require an access to the essential truths inherent in nature and the true benefits provided by laws of nature. The purpose of establishing conventions and setting down systems of conduct, either knowingly or unknowingly, is to meet these objectives.

A very simple example for this is of a doctor, who instructs the son or daughter of a sick man to return home with the patient, saying: ’Everyday, prepare a pitcher containing a litre and a half of distilled water for your father to drink.’ {305}

Here we see a social convention (of language) pointing to a truth inherent in nature (a cure for the illness), and a disciplined system (a medicinal treatment plan) enabling people to benefit both from social conventions and from a system of interrelated conditions linked to various laws of nature. The greater is one’s wisdom, the deeper is one’s penetrative insight into how these various factors are interconnected.

If one is endowed with wisdom, clearly discerning the interrelationship of various conditions, one’s efforts will thus increasingly lead to success.

Here, we may outline two connected systems:

1. A natural system established in accord with natural laws. Whether human beings exist or not, or are aware of this system or not, it exists ’just so’. In brief, one may call this system ’Dhamma’.

2. A conventional human system created in order for society to be in harmony with and to benefit from nature and the laws of nature. In brief, one may call this system ’vinaya’.

The human conventional system (vinaya) must be firmly based on the system of nature (Dhamma) in order for it to be genuine and effective.

In this sense, the Dhamma is both the foundation and the purpose of the vinaya. Human laws must be established on and be in harmony with natural laws in order for people to profit from the laws of nature.

As mentioned earlier, human society functions by way of conventions (sammati), forms based on mutual consent and approval, that allow for effective communication and management. The vinaya refers to formulating a system to effectively regulate social activities.

Mutually agreed-upon conventions require social unity and concord (sāmaggī), enabling people to accept, endorse, and follow the prescribed rules and regulations. Social unity is a foundation for social conventions. Devoid of such concord and unity, these conventions are unsound and the society in question is unstable.

Without social concord, some people will reject the conventions. For instance, people will not respect the proprietary rights of others, the rights of others in legal disputes, the rights of other factions or groups of people, and the rules and laws of society. This leads to social turmoil and unrest, and may even lead to the demise of society.

Social concord is a foundation for codes of conduct (vinaya), a guarantee for social conventions, and a support for society. Over and above that, concord and harmony enables society to fulfil its potential, of having each individual provide support to others, and of being a conducive environment for all people to develop themselves and to attain greater blessings. {306}

Particularly in those communal systems or forms of governance in which all members have a participatory role, for example in the Buddhist monastic sangha and in state democracies, social harmony, concord, and unison lie at the heart of such systems. In this respect, the Buddha gave great emphasis to sangha harmony (saṅgha-sāmaggī), which must be paired with a secure monastic discipline (vinaya).

Those people responsible for society need to know how to apply codes of conduct skilfully in order to foster community harmony (gaṇa-sāmaggī). Another responsibility of social leaders is to develop the willingness in people to unite together in endorsing and upholding just conventions.

And on a deeper level, wise individuals are able to act in line with the system of natural laws in order to achieve results. They investigate and regulate various causes and conditions; when they acquire an ample and integrated set of conditions, there arises a ’harmony of conditions’ (paccaya-sāmaggī). They realize the fruit of their aspired goal. If the conditions are inadequate and one lacks this integration, no matter how much effort one puts into one’s actions, they will not reach success.

As mentioned above, the codes of conduct (vinaya) need to be based on dhamma, which may be defined as natural phenomena or laws of nature. This term dhamma, however, may also be interpreted as ’truth’, ’righteousness’, or ’goodness’.

This links us back to social harmony. If social conventions, and the codes used to manage such conventions, are neither grounded in nor accord with Dhamma, people will quarrel with one another and lack unity, refusing to accept these conventions. This leads to discord and schism. If this conflict and discord is severe or widespread, it may even lead to the destruction of that community or society.

This matter of social harmony is thus of vital importance. Even if social conventions thwart the personal interests of an individual, he or she won’t be able to validly discredit them if they are established in righteousness.

If people contravene the truth inherent in nature, they will experience adverse effects according to natural laws. If they contravene social conventions, they will be at odds with others in society and experience the ill-effects due to the collapse of their community.

When social conventions and codes of conduct are grounded in righteousness, people realize that they should foster communal harmony for the stability of their community or society. This is the case, for instance, in the monastic community. Besides supporting the monastic community and strengthening communal harmony, monks also honour the community and give priority to communal wellbeing. Indeed, the Buddha himself honoured the sangha.⁹⁴

The effort to strengthen one’s community is not made to boost some form of collective identity, but rather to generate a supportive environment for each individual to mature and flourish. {307} If the monastic community does not develop in stability, it will not be conducive to the prosperity and wellbeing of its members. It is for this reason that the principles of reverence for the sangha (saṅgha-gāravatā) and sangha harmony (saṅgha-sāmaggī) are given such importance.

As mentioned above, codes of conduct (vinaya) are based on laws of nature (dhamma), yet these two factors are distinguished from one another. The Dhamma refers to truths inherent in nature, whereas the term vinaya refers to human conventions. Codes of conduct apply social conventions in order to support the Dhamma. One may even say that these codes help to direct the Dhamma. And from another perspective they act independently of the Dhamma; they need not wait for the Dhamma to be set in motion.

To illustrate this, let us take the example of someone who performs a bad action. From the perspective of Dhamma, one may refer to inherent laws of nature, i.e. the law of kamma, which dictates that this person will naturally reap the fruits of his actions. Determined codes of conduct (vinaya), however, need not wait for the Dhamma. Human laws set down authorized forms of conduct (kamma-sammati), and the person who transgresses these laws by misbehaving is called into an assembly and punished. Here, the vinaya does not wait for the Dhamma, i.e. it does not wait for the law of kamma to complete its course. These human laws deal with this situation immediately.

Here, it is apt to offer a warning that there are many Buddhists who harbour a wrong understanding on this matter. Some people even claim that one need not respond at all to those who have done evil, because eventually they must receive the fruits of their kamma. This is a mistaken view. Such people lack insight into the truth and have an incomplete understanding. They fail to understand the essence of the Dhamma and the vinaya.

How is this true? Let us examine this matter more closely.

By making the distinction between a system of nature and a system of human conventions, one may be under the impression that these are indeed two separate systems: a world of nature and a world of human beings. In fact, the distinction is made simply for the convenience of examining various circumstances. Yet one should not be misled into believing that these are indeed two separate systems.

A comprehensive inspection of this matter reveals that human beings are one facet or aspect of nature. Therefore, any kind of human activity or issue relates to nature and is included as a part of nature.

Human volitional actions are described as following the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma), which may give the impression that this is a distinct law. In truth, however, the law of kamma is one kind of natural law; it is incorporated into the general law of cause and effect (dhamma-niyāma) and is part of Dependent Origination (paṭiccasamuppāda). It is distinguished simply to clarify one facet of the natural order.

The distinction between Dhamma and vinaya is made for the sake of convenience, when examining various stages of a natural process. Yet a comprehensive view reveals that the system of human codes of conduct is incorporated into the Dhamma, which is a single, large system of truth.

Here, we should examine just how these two systems are linked and how they are distinguished. {308}

Human activity is neither random nor haphazard. It does not resemble the branches of trees, which move and sway only when buffeted by the wind or some external force. Human beings, in contrast, are able to move their limbs out of an act of will. If a man were to be walking down a path and a rotten tree limb were to accidentally fall on his head, this would be different from someone else coming by and deliberately whacking him over the head with a stick. Even if someone were to fall out of a tree and accidentally hit someone else, this too would be distinguished from a random tree limb falling down.

What is the difference between these various scenarios? The answer is easy: branches, and other inanimate natural phenomena, do not willingly perform actions, whereas people do.

And if one investigates further, one asks: ’What is the source of human action?’ One’s initial response may be: ’People’s minds’. More to the point, the source of human action is intention (cetanā). Intention is human action; intention is kamma.

Intention (cetanā) refers to volition, purpose, intent: the deliberate choice to accept or reject something, the wilful choice to act in a particular way. Intention is the director of affairs, which induces various motivating factors, both positive and negative, including greed, hatred, and delusion, craving, conceit, and wrong view, and wisdom and lovingkindness, to step forward and take an active role.

Everything pertaining to the world of human beings – the establishment of conventions, the laying down of rules and legislation, allocation of resources, production, work, politics, technology, cultural traditions, social customs, etc. – arise by way of human action and are determined and created by intention.

Human beings are one cause and condition within the natural causal system, and intention is one factor in this process. Of all factors within the human mind, intention plays such a pivotal role that it is valid to say it represents the entirety of an individual person. It is the means by which people express themselves through actions, beginning with thoughts and then leading to speech and physical acts.

As intention plays such a significant role, affecting and altering people’s circumstances in countless ways, it is recognized as comprising a key domain in the natural causal system, worthy of special attention and investigation. For this reason, the law of kamma (kamma-niyāma) is distinguished as a subsidiary law in the wider law of nature.

The law of kamma pertains to human society, to the world of human beings. Intention is the active agent behind kamma; as stated earlier, one may say that intention is kamma, or kamma is intention.

All human codes of conduct (vinaya) as part of a system of human conventions are established and managed by human intention. Although these are social matters, ultimately, they are included as causes and conditions within a larger natural process. They are not separate from nature.

Wise and virtuous people establish codes of conduct in order to foster social peace and wellbeing. They wish for society to be just and upright, to be based in righteousness (the Dhamma). For this purpose, they link these codes of conduct with those systems inherent in nature, generating positive results for everyone in that society. {309} Such people are clever in managing causes and conditions; they understand two overlapping systems of causes and conditions.

When people are endowed with wholesome intention, they already engage in one form of positive kamma. But how should they act in order to generate good results according to such intentions? How can they affect the causes and conditions within natural dynamics so that they may achieve their desired end? The answer is simple: they must comprehend the requisite causes and conditions, and act accordingly.

Here, another vital spiritual faculty, inherent in people themselves, comes to the fore, namely, wisdom (paññā). Wisdom is another condition of nature that plays a participatory role in these natural processes.

Wisdom is crucial because it has insight into nature. When developed, it becomes deeper and more comprehensive, until it is perfected. This way, one realizes the truth.

Intention enables one to give rise to those causes and conditions leading to success. With good intentions and a comprehensive understanding of causes and conditions, wisdom then guides one’s behaviour. In a social context, one then applies social conventions in order to bring about a virtuous and just society.

In regard to codes of conduct (vinaya), intention draws upon causes and conditions to establish systems of rules and regulations. These codes are effective for producing positive results, even for those individuals who are not particularly virtuous or wise themselves. At this stage, the natural causal process is embodied and manifest within this code of conduct, enabling wholesome causes and conditions to be effective in a widespread and long-lasting way.

As mentioned above, from the perspective of Dhamma, if one behaves immorally, one will reap the fruits of one’s actions according to the law of kamma. Yet the vinaya, or the set of human laws, does not wait for these effects to come to fruition. Human laws lay down authorized forms of conduct (kamma-sammati), and the person who transgresses these laws is called into an assembly and punished. The vinaya does not wait for the Dhamma; it responds immediately, according to these authorized forms of conduct.

For example, if bhikkhus quarrel with one another, there are means for settling disputes, by taking legal proceedings in order to determine fault, give a verdict, and impose a punishment. Here, a sangha assembly acts according to established prescriptions, in order to settle the matter.

If there is a legal case pending, but the monks fail to carry it out, they are also considered blameworthy. The Buddha did not permit them to simply claim that they were waiting for the law of kamma to sort things out. The vinaya does not delay; it proceeds immediately with its own authorized form of kamma. (See the Vinaya Piṭaka for many examples of formal acts of the sangha, including acts of censure – niggaha-kamma.)

In sum, there exist two major systems: the Dhamma and the vinaya. In terms of social matters, the vinaya deals with certain matters immediately. The vinaya establishes and implements conventions that enable the Dhamma to become manifest in society. If one neglects this second system, one’s Dhamma practice will be faulty and one’s society will deviate from the truth.

Here, a deeper level of understanding is required. The expression ’the vinaya does not wait for the Dhamma’ – for instance in the above example of the monastic community applying authorized prescriptions and not waiting for ’genuine’ kamma to bear fruit – is an informal way of speaking.

One needs to guard against the misunderstanding that human beings are separate from nature and somehow exempt from its laws. {310} The establishment of conventions and the application of codes of behaviour pertain to a unique ability belonging to human beings, who are capable of taking personal sets of conditions and integrating them into wider dynamics of nature, in order to generate wholesome and desirable results.

In other words, the system of human conventions is a means for people to integrate their distinctive qualities of intention and wisdom into the wider natural causal process, influencing it so that it functions in such a way as to produce favourable results for individuals and their society.

Wisdom and wise deliberation are natural phenomena, but they belong to the domain of immaterial phenomena (nāma-dhamma), and they are exceptional qualities arising as a consequence of training and development, which is part of people’s spiritual potential. Human beings’ distinction and excellence, giving rise to cultures and civilizations, lies precisely at this point. For if people are unable to apply these spiritual properties to shape the world around them in positive ways, what good is it to be a human being?

The fact that human activities stemming from wisdom and deliberation have the capability to influence the stream of natural causes and conditions, giving rise to favourable results, is an appeal and summons for people to develop these spiritual qualities, in order to achieve true success.

Human communities (including the monastic sangha) require concord and unity (sāmaggī), so that their members accept the conventions and comply by the mutually agreed-upon prescriptions. The codes of conduct in such communities will thus succeed at bringing about desired results.

In sum, there are two kinds of kamma:

1. Kamma inherent in nature (dhamma), constituting the law of kamma.

2. Kamma inherent in conventional codes of conduct (vinaya), established by human beings.

In regard to the monastic code of discipline (the Vinaya), if a monk misbehaves, the sangha applies authorized forms of conduct (kamma-sammati) prescribed by the Buddha to deal with the situation without waiting for the law of kamma to be fully activated. By applying these authorized prescriptions stemming from human wisdom and deliberation, one integrates human spiritual factors with the law of nature on a wider scale.

Note that the kamma inherent in conventional codes of conduct does not only pertain to punishment or to problem solving, but may also be linked to positive and favourable action. The formal sangha acts in the monastic Vinaya, for example, include ordination ceremonies (upasampadā-kamma), Uposatha Day ceremonies (uposatha-kamma), the formal invitation for admonishment (pavāraṇā-kamma), and various conventional activities (sammati-kamma) like electing sangha officers.

To conclude, those teachers endowed with supreme wisdom, who have realized the Dhamma, arrived at the highest truth, and are awakened, are known as Buddhas, but if they stop at this point, they are Silent Buddhas (pacceka-buddha). If, however, by virtue of their great compassion they establish and apply a Vinaya so that all of humanity benefits from the Dhamma, they are perfectly enlightened Buddhas (sammāsambuddha). (See Note Definition of Sammāsambuddha)

Therefore, to derive the greatest value from Buddhism, besides realizing the Dhamma (realizing the laws of nature), one needs to establish a vinaya (attend to matters pertaining to human society). {311}

Does the Law of Kamma Conflict with the Teaching on Nonself?

Some beginning students of Buddhism may wonder whether the law of kamma conflicts with the teaching on nonself (anattā). If everything, including our bodies and mind, is nonself, how is it possible for kamma to function? Who is that performs volitional actions? Who receives their fruit?

These sort of doubts existed even at the time of the Buddha:

Before investigating this sutta passage more closely, let us consider the following comparison:

Imagine that one is standing next to a river. For the majority of its course the river passes through relatively flat land and its current is slow. The banks along the river contain mostly red clay and the colour of the river is thus reddish. Moreover, the river passes many densely populated areas, and it has been polluted by human waste and industrial toxins, decreasing the natural stock of aquatic life like fish and shrimp. {312}

The slow current, reddish tint, polluted water, and paucity of wildlife comprise the characteristic features of this river. Some of these features will be shared by other rivers, but this precise collection of features is characteristic to this river alone.

Later, someone mentions that this river is called Castle River. People then go on to confirm what one sees oneself, that the Castle River is polluted, absent of fish, slow-moving, and coloured by red clay.

One can make the observation that the body of water one is looking at is inherently complete according to its own nature. It is endowed with specific attributes, e.g. slow-moving, reddish, dirty, etc., because of various interconnected conditioning factors and processes giving rise to such attributes. When the current flows by the red clay banks, for example, the water is reddened. Various events and occurrences produce natural results.

Moreover, as one is watching this river, the current flows by nonstop. The water one observes at one moment is not the same water as that which passes one by at a later time. This change and movement notwithstanding, the river retains its characteristic features, because the conditioning factors combining to form this body of water remain the same. If someone else comes by and declares that this river is called Castle River, and that Castle River is slow-moving, polluted, etc., this has no bearing on the true nature of the river. There exists no separate, distinct identity of a ’Castle River’, which has some proprietary role over the body of water one is presently observing.

Others may say: ’Castle River erodes the red clay banks and is consequently tinted red.’ This may give the impression that the river is functioning in some kind of active role as a separate identity and is duly fined for its actions. Yet it is obvious that this body of water exists as an inherently complete causal process. The water striking the banks and the clay dissolving into the water is the cause; the reddening of the water is the result. There exists no separate agent or recipient in this dynamic.

No concrete, independent entity called Castle River is visible. The current of water that has passed one by has flowed on; the water one observed a moment ago is no longer present; it is continually being replaced by a new current of water. We are able to describe or define this river simply by the various factors, conditions, occurrences, etc. that combine and produce visible characteristics. If an absolute or fixed entity called Castle River were to truly exist, then the current of water would not be subject to the various causes and conditions that interact with it. Eventually, one recognizes that the identity of a ’Castle River’ is superfluous. One is able to describe and refer to this body of water in a fully accurate way without needing to apply this label. In truth, there is no such thing as a ’Castle River’. No fixed entity, no ’self’, exists that is called Castle River, which owns, interferes with, or controls this current of water.

Later, one travels to another district. Here, one wishes to describe to its residents the body of water that one previously observed, but one is faced with a stumbling block. One is not sure how to express oneself. One remembers that earlier someone referred to this body of water as Castle River. Now, by applying this name, one is able to conveniently refer to this river when speaking to these other people. One can explain to them that Castle River is slow-moving, polluted, ruddy, etc. {313}

Here, one gains a clear recognition that the name ’Castle River’ (and the related terms for the river’s attributes) applied to describe this natural body of water is simply a conventional designation used for the sake of convenience in communicating with others. Whether these terms exist or not, or whether one chooses to use them or not, however, they have no bearing on this body of water. The river exists as a dynamic stream of water flowing continuously according to its own causes and conditions. One is able to distinguish between these conventional labels and the natural phenomena. Endowed with a proper understanding, one is able to use these terms with a sense of ease.

In truth, conventional labels such as ’person’, ’Mr. Adams’, ’Mrs. Pearce’, ’we’, and ’you’, refer to dynamics in nature existing as unbroken currents of interrelated causes and conditions. They manifest in myriad forms according to their specific conditional factors, including both factors inherent to the dynamic itself and related external factors.

When a particular kind of interaction between factors arises as a cause, it produces the effect of change and alteration within a specific dynamic. In relation to human beings, that which is called kamma and vipāka (i.e. action and the fruits of action) is equivalent to the events and occurrences unfolding in line with the causal continuum comprising a specific individual. Every natural phenomenon is inherently complete in the sense that it is independent of conventional labels. This is also true for human beings, who exist independently from such labels as ’I’, ’you’, ’him’, ’Susan’, ’Paul’, etc., who may be referred to as an owner, instigator, recipient, and so on.

This is how things really exist according to nature. For the sake of convenience, while communicating with other people, however, one may choose to use conventional labels by assigning names and designations to these fluid dynamics, for instance as ’David’, ’Nancy’, ’Duke’, ’Duchess’, ’boss’, etc. When people are identified by such labels they may validly be referred to as the owner, instigator, recipient, etc., according to the circumstances. Regardless of whether these names and designations exist or are used, however, the dynamics of nature proceed according to natural laws and are shaped by their respective causes and conditions. The important point here is to be able to clearly distinguish between natural phenomena themselves and their specific conventional designations. One should not get these two aspects jumbled up. Before using conventional designations, one ought to have a thorough understanding of phenomena acting as a basis.

Natural phenomena themselves, and their conventional designations, are both indispensable. Natural phenomena (often referred to as ’absolute realities’ – paramattha) are aspects of nature. Conventional designations have to do with the practical affairs of human beings. Problems arise because people often confuse these two, that is, they try to make the phenomena conform to the designations, causing all sorts of trouble. The phenomena themselves do not suffer any affliction; they simply proceed according to their own nature; they take no interest in whether people attach to them or not. It is human beings alone who are afflicted. And because the phenomena themselves are unsympathetic to people’s afflictions, people feel that their desires are thwarted and suffer even more.

In the earlier sutta passage, it is obvious that the doubt-stricken bhikkhu confused principles he had learned about natural phenomena with conventional concepts that he was personally attached to, giving rise to confusion and perplexity. In the sentence: What self, then, will actions done by the not-self affect? the clause ’actions done by the not-self’ reflect this monk’s understanding of natural phenomena, while ’what self will be affected?’ reveal his attachment to conventional terms and designations. As a matter of course, these two phrases are at odds with one another.

The principles of nonself and kamma are not mutually contradictory. Just the opposite: the former supports the latter, because the law of kamma is only possible because of the truth of nonself. When a specific dynamic in nature unfolds, all of its component factors interact as a continual and interconnected process of arising and passing away. This allows for an interrelated stream of causes and conditions. No solid and constant entity lies in rigid isolation in the middle of this stream, impeding the current and preventing it from flowing as it does.

If a fixed permanent self (attā) were to exist the law of kamma would be impossible, because such a self would not be subject to causes and conditions; nothing could gain access to it. Nothing would be able to alter or transform such a self. Eventually, as one sees in some eternalist doctrines, human beings need to be separated into two overlapping layers: people only receive the effects of their actions on an external layer; essentially, or at the core, however, the ’self’ or ’soul’ remains constant, unchanging, and unaffected by any events in the world. {314}

Human beings are able to perform volitional actions and receive the fruits of such actions without a need for an enduring ’actor’ or ’recipient’ taking part. When one encounters any process in nature, one needs to inquire into what are the interrelated conditions giving rise to the dynamic. Similarly, what are the results of this dynamic, i.e. how does it transform and change? In reference to human beings, the conditional factors collectively referred to as ’volitional action’ (kamma) are the cause, bearing fruit (vipāka) for the individual. One can refer to this process as human actions and the fruits of actions, without the need for a separate entity of an ’owner’ of these actions and their results.

Kamma is equivalent to this process of cause and effect, which is distinct from the conventional labels we affix to things. When people agree with one another to apply conventional names on a natural dynamic comprising a single human individual, say by calling one person Mac and another person Lily, then an entity recognized as ’Mac’ or ’Lily’ is acknowledged as being the agent or recipient of specific actions. The natural phenomenon – the body-mind process – however, is inherently complete and proceeds irrespective of such names and conventions; it proceeds independently.

When one uses conventional language (e.g. one says, ’Mac performed such-and-such and action, and he received such-and-such results’), then one should make it clear that one is speaking on this level. Likewise, when one speaks on an ultimate level, or refers to absolute truths (e.g. one describes the causes and conditions that bring about particular results in a body-mind dynamic), one should be clear about this too. If one is aware of one’s goals and objectives while using speech, and one does not mix up these various levels of truth, then there is no problem.⁹⁵

One’s examinations need not focus on human beings, who are made up of an extremely intricate and complex convergence of causes and conditions, on account of the addition of various mental factors. Even in the case of material things, for instance in the case of Castle River mentioned earlier, people are often attached to conventional labels and create fixed identities around natural phenomena.

Mental factors are extremely subtle and refined. It happens that some people are not even able to discern change within the mind. There are those who make the claim: ’Who says perception is impermanent and uncertain? Perception is permanent, because wherever it arises it invariably exists as perception. This is constant.’ There are others who may be inclined to share this opinion, but this matter may be clarified by asking them to compare mental factors to material things. The above claim is similar to saying: ’Who says the body is impermanent? The body is constant and stable – wherever the body arises it exists invariably as the body.’ The misunderstanding here is the same: it arises due to a confusion between the phenomenon itself (e.g. perception or the body) and its conventional designation (e.g. ’perception’, ’the body’). Whereas the person here is ostensibly claiming that perception is permanent, what he in effect is saying is that the name ’perception’ is stable and constant.

A study of the principles of kamma by only focusing on conventional identities leads to an overly broad understanding of cause and effect. One may examine particular bad deeds performed by someone on a specific day in the past and link these to negative results occurring ten years later. Here, one outlines a causal relationship spanning the single stretch of ten years. Such an examination fails to provide a clear and detailed glimpse of the causal process, because it does not explain the continual stream of relevant causes and conditions. A detailed study of phenomena, however, helps to discern the uninterrupted, interconnected stream of events, and reveals the true connection between actions and their fruit.⁹⁶ {315}

Chris may get into an argument with one of his neighbours and becomes so incensed that he murders him. Fearing capture by the authorities and the vengeance of the man’s relatives and companions, he goes into hiding. Eventually, he is captured and punished.

Even after his prison sentence is complete, Chris still feels afflicted by this evil deed and is haunted by the image of his neighbour. He experiences both physical and emotional agony; he is unable to find any peace. His outward appearance also changes; he appears melancholy, suspicious, and miserable.

On account of other factors, for example the fact that he is physically strong, he becomes irascible and violent. After a long period of time his personality changes; he becomes crude and cruel, and he covers over his suffering by acts of force. He becomes a danger to society and is unable to find any joy among other people.

A short account of this story would simply state: ’Chris performed a vile act and reaped the fruits of his deeds.’ Using such everyday, conventional language is easy for people to understand; it provides convenience for communication. But it only describes an external state of affairs or a coarse picture of refined interconnected causes and conditions. It does not reach the essential causal interrelationship of natural phenomena.

A discussion of the absolute nature of phenomena, on the other hand, describes the gist of natural processes. For instance, one may say: ’Within this particular dynamic of five aggregates, anger arises in the mind, resulting in further volitional activity and an expression of physical action. The mind continues to be shaped by anger, leading to an alteration in the quality of the mind, which is now characterized by such negative states as mistrust, fear, and malicious thoughts. When the mind is frequently conditioned by anger, negative mind states are accumulated until they become fixed personality traits. These negative mind states create suffering within the individual, and in this case even lead to physical pain and suffering.’

Such a discussion of phenomena is complete, without needing to refer to a man named Chris or to some conventional identity. The dynamic here comprises various factors which arise and act as interrelated causes and conditions. There is action and the fruition of action, without the need for an ’actor’ or ’recipient’.

Regardless of which kind of language one uses, the essential truth of the phenomena in question remains the same. The difference is that a discussion of the absolute nature of things mentions only pure aspects of reality, without adding conventional concepts on top of reality.

The following story may help to clarify this matter:

A man named Pong visited one of the senior monks in the monastery.

He asked: ’Luang Por,⁹⁷ the Buddha taught that everything is nonself (anattā); everything is selfless and insubstantial; everything exists without a true owner. There is no actor and there is no recipient of action. In that case, I can go and hit someone or kill someone, because there exists no one who acts and no one who receives the fruit of action.’

Hardly had these words left Pong’s mouth when the elder monk seized a cane from beside his seat and swung it at Pong. Pong barely had time to protect himself and the cane struck him squarely in the arm. He sat rubbing the bruise.

’Luang Por, why did you do that to me?!’ Pong rasped, barely suppressing his anger.

’What was that like?’ the monk asked nonchalantly.

’You hit me. I’m in pain!’ Pong replied, his face strained. {316}

’Action exists without an actor; the fruits of action exist without a recipient; feelings exist without an experiencer of feelings; pain exists without one who feels pain’, the monk said dispassionately, as if he were giving a sermon. ’One who looks for selfish gain in the teaching on nonself does not escape from self. One who grasps onto the teaching of nonself is indeed one who grasps onto self, devoid of any understanding into nonself. One who attaches to the idea that there is no actor has not relinquished the idea that a victim of pain exists. He has no insight that in truth there is neither actor nor one who experiences pain.’

The moral of this story is that if one is bent on the claim that no doer exists behind volitional actions, then one must also abandon such statements as ’I am in pain’.

Practical Value

The practical value of the teaching on kamma may be summarized as follows:

• It establishes people firmly in reasoned discernment and sound judgement; it enables people to see actions and the fruits of action in the light of interrelated causes and conditions; it prevents people from gullible beliefs and from giving undue importance to sensationalized rumours and ideas, for example the belief that a particular river is sacred or divine.

• It reveals how desired results and aspired goals are achievable by way of action and engagement, therefore:

  • One must develop self-reliance and make determined effort.

  • One should not seek or expect results by prayer and supplication, for instance by propitiating divine forces.

• It encourages people to take responsibility for themselves by abstaining from immoral behaviour and to take responsibility for others by performing benevolent deeds.

• It confirms that all people equally possess the natural right to develop and improve themselves. Through their actions, people are able to either decrease or increase in virtuous qualities, and at the highest degree they are able to reach such distinction that they are greater than celestial beings.

• It asserts that the true yardsticks for determining human inferiority and excellence are each individual’s spiritual qualities, capabilities, and conduct. In this regard, distinctions made according to birth, caste, or social class are irrelevant.

• It urges people to use past kamma as a lesson for life and to increase their own self-understanding; it gives relatively little importance to blaming or focusing on others’ misdeeds and offences. In this way one recognizes one’s own basic qualities and condition, so that one is able to improve oneself and to correctly plan one’s own spiritual development.

• It provides hope to people for the future.

These aspects of practical value are evident in the following teachings by the Buddha.

General Aspects of Kamma

Kamma Grounded in Rational Belief

Kamma as Active Engagement

Behaviour as the Benchmark for Gauging a Person’s Value

Self-Reliance

Exhortations for the Future

Appendix: Twelve Kinds of Kamma

The presentations in the commentaries and sub-commentaries on the twelve kinds of kamma (classified as three groups of four) can be summarized as follows:

Group no. 1

Classified according to the time of taking effect (pākakāla; ’time of ripening’):

1. Diṭṭhadhammavedanīya-kamma:

   ’Immediately effective kamma’; kamma bearing fruit in the present, i.e. in this state of existence; either good or bad kamma performed at the time of the first ’impulsive mind moment’ (javana-citta; ’mind moment of running through an object’). (Altogether there are seven such mind moments in one cognitive series – javana-vīthi; the first javana-citta is also referred to as the first ’intentional impulse’ – javana-cetanā). This kind of kamma only bears fruit in this lifetime. If it does not have the opportunity to bear fruit in this lifetime, it becomes ahosi-kamma, i.e. it will no longer bear fruit (see below). The reason it bears fruit in this lifetime is that it constitutes the first moment of intention and is not subject to other forms of kamma; it manifests as initial volitional activity, exerting a unique influence. Despite its influence, it bears no fruit beyond this lifetime, because it is not habitually repeated, and thus its effects are minor or negligible. This is compared to a hunter who sees a deer, grabs an arrow, and immediately shoots. If he strikes the target the deer falls on the spot, but if he misses the deer escapes.

2. Uppajjavedanīya-kamma:

   Kamma bearing fruit in the next life, i.e. the next state of existence; either good or bad kamma performed at the time of the final ’impulsive mind moment’ (javana-citta), i.e. at the seventh mind moment in one cognitive series; this final javana-citta is also referred to as the seventh ’intentional impulse’. This kind of kamma only bears fruit in the next lifetime. If it does not have the opportunity to bear fruit in the next lifetime, it becomes ahosi-kamma. The reason it bears fruit in the next lifetime is that it comprises the final moment of intention. It fulfils one’s inclinations and it inherits the habitual repetition from previous moments of intention. At the same time, however, its power is limited, because it is the mind moment at which the cognitive series (javana-vīthi) comes to an end.

3. Aparāpariyavedanīya-kamma:

   ’Indefinitely effective kamma’; kamma bearing fruit in subsequent states of existence; either good or bad kamma performed during the five intermediate ’impulsive mind moments’ (javana-citta), i.e. between the second and the sixth impulsive mind moment (or ’intentional impulse’) in one cognitive series. This kind of kamma bears fruit continually in the future, beyond the next lifetime, i.e. it bears fruit whenever there is an opportunity. As long as one remains in the round of rebirth (saṁsāra-vaṭṭa), it does not become ahosi-kamma. It is compared to a hound chasing a deer; whenever it catches up with the deer, it clamps its teeth on it.

4. Ahosi-kamma:

   Kamma ceasing to bear fruit; either good or bad kamma that has had no opportunity to bear fruit during the time when it had the potential to bear fruit. When this time has passed by, it no longer bears fruit. (The term ahosi-kamma was originally used in Pali to denote ’previously performed kamma’, rather than ’kamma ceasing to bear fruit’ or ’kamma having already borne fruit’. The commentators, however, use it with the specific meaning of ’existing kamma devoid of fruit (vipāka)’.)¹⁰³

Group no. 2

Classified according to function (kicca) in respect to fruition:

Group no. 3

Classified according to order of strength in bearing fruit (pākadāna-pariyāya):

The Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha contains another set of four kinds of kamma, for a total of sixteen kinds:¹⁰⁴

Group no. 4

Classified according to location (i.e. sphere of existence – bhava) of effect (pākaṭṭhāna):

Further Notes

The Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha arranges these four groups of kamma in the following order:

Group 1 = group 2
Group 2 = group 3
Group 3 = group 1
Group 4 = group 4

The Visuddhimagga arranges the groups as follows:¹⁰⁶

Group 1 = group 1
Group 2 = group 3
Group 3 = group 2

The Manorathapūraṇī explains the twelve kinds of kamma in more detail than in any other texts.¹⁰⁷ It defines this classification of kamma as an exposition by sutta specialists (suttantika-pariyāya). It only counts eleven distinct kinds of kamma, as it considers ahosi-kamma as simply the condition in which various forms of kamma do not bear fruit. It claims that this term is inserted in various passages simply to describe various (other) forms of kamma, and is thus not a distinct form of kamma in itself.

It goes on to explain that an exposition in accord with the Abhidhamma (abhidhamma-pariyāya) refers to sixteen kinds of kamma based on the four accomplishments (sampatti) and the four defects (vipatti).¹⁰⁸ {323}

There are several other commentarial texts which present an incomplete description of these various kinds of kamma, most notably the Papañcasūdanī, which only explains the first and second groups.¹⁰⁹

It is fair to say that these twelve kinds of kamma represent a commentarial interpretation, although some of these factors have a clear basis in the Pali Canon. This is true in particular with the first three factors of the first group, classified according to the time of taking effect:

The commentary to these sutta passages is precisely the Manorathapūraṇī, which presents the most detailed description of the twelve kinds of kamma, as cited above.

In the Mahākammavibhaṅga Sutta, the Buddha divides people into four kinds, related to the fruition of kamma, as follows:¹¹⁰

The first kind of person performs the ten unwholesome courses of action. On the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappears in a state of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, even in hell. This is because earlier he did an evil action to be experienced as painful, or later he did an evil action to be experienced as painful, or at the time of death he maintained acute wrong view. Since he has performed the ten unwholesome courses of action, he will experience the result of that either here and now (diṭṭhave dhamme), or in his next rebirth (uppajje vā), or in some subsequent existence (apare vā pariyāye).

The second kind of person similarly performs the ten unwholesome courses of action. Yet, on the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappears in a happy destination, even in the heavenly world. This is because earlier he did a good action to be experienced as pleasant, or later he did a good action to be experienced as pleasant, or at the time of death he maintained right view to the full. But since he has performed the ten unwholesome courses of action, he will experience the result of that either here and now, or in his next rebirth, or in some subsequent existence.

The third kind of person performs the ten wholesome courses of action. On the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappears in a happy destination, even in the heavenly world. This is because earlier he did a good action to be experienced as pleasant, or later he did a good action to be experienced as pleasant, or at the time of death he maintained right view to the full. Since he has performed the ten wholesome courses of action, he will experience the result of that either here and now, or in his next rebirth, or in some subsequent existence.

The fourth kind of person similarly performs the ten wholesome courses of action. Yet, on the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappears in a state of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, even in hell. This is because earlier he did an evil action to be experienced as painful, or later he did an evil action to be experienced as painful, or at the time of death he maintained acute wrong view. But since he has performed the ten wholesome courses of action, he will experience the result of that either here and now, or in his next rebirth, or in some subsequent existence.

The commentaries explain this passage by using the terms diṭṭhadhamma-vedanīya, uppajja-vedanīya, and aparāpariya-vedanīya.¹¹¹ Furthermore, one is able here to see the suggestion or source of the concept of āsanna-kamma (actions performed or reflected upon immediately before death). {323}

The Apadāna, which recounts the past lives of various disciples, mentions proximate kamma (āsanna-kamma) in numerous passages.¹¹² One example is the story of an elder who was a hunter in a past life. One day he encountered the Buddha Tissa. Out of faith he offered a handful of grass for the Buddha Tissa to sit on, and consequently his mind was pure and bright. Soon after that he was mauled and killed by a lion. Because of his deeds shortly before death, of meeting the Buddha Tissa, making an offering, and gaining faith, he was born in heaven. These passages reveal that the consideration of actions close to death and the use of the term āsanna-kamma in this context was prevalent at the time that this early text was composed.

The term diṭṭhadhamma-vedanīya-(kamma) is mentioned in several other passages of the Pali Canon,¹¹³ but it is paired with the term samparāya-vedanīya (’bearing fruit in the future’) in a group of ten factors. The remaining eight factors are: sukha-vedanīya (’bearing fruit as pleasure’); dukkha-vedanīya (’bearing fruit as pain’); paripakka-vedanīya (’bearing fruit for an individuality brought to maturity’, ’bearing fruit for an individuality whose time has come’); aparipakka-vedanīya (’bearing fruit for an individuality whose time has not yet come’); bahu-vedanīya (’bearing abundant fruit’); appa-vedanīya (’bearing meagre fruit’); vedanīya (’necessarily bearing fruit’); and avedanīya (’not necessarily bearing fruit’).

The terms diṭṭhadhammavedanīya-kamma, uppajjavedanīya-kamma, and aparāpariyavedanīya-kamma appear clearly in their complete form in the Kathāvatthu, which Ven. Moggalliputta-Tissa Thera composed at the time of the Third Recitation, in about 218 B.E. (325 BC).¹¹⁴ The term ahosi-kamma also appears clearly from early on, in the Paṭisambhidāmagga.¹¹⁵

The commentaries present an additional group of twelve kinds of kamma:

1. Previously performed action (ahosi-kamma), with previously existing fruits of action.

2. Previously performed action, without any previously existing fruits of action.

3. Previously performed action, with the fruits of action presently in existence.

4. Previously performed action, with no existing fruits of action.

5. Previously performed action, with fruits of action existing in the future.

6. Previously performed action, with no fruits of action existing in the future.

7. Existing action with existing fruits of action.

8. Existing action with no existing fruits of action.

9. Existing action with fruits of action existing in the future.

10. Existing action with no fruits of action existing in the future.

11. Action existing in the future with fruits of action existing in the future.

12. Action existing in the future with no fruits of action existing in the future.

The commentaries explain this group in conformity with the previous group of twelve kinds of kamma.¹¹⁶ The gist of this teaching is that there are six kinds of kamma that bear fruit and six kinds of kamma that do not bear fruit. Note how the term ahosi-kamma here refers to ’previously performed action’.

The other terms, e.g. garuka and āciṇṇa, were used in the Pali Canon in other contexts. Only in the commentaries were they used to describe distinct kinds of kamma.